Table 2.
Use of local anesthetics for local anesthesia in amphibians
| Dose | Maximal dose | Route | Species | Comments | |
| Textbooks | |||||
| Lidocaine (1% to 2%) | — | — | LI9,47 | ND | All/local anesthesia with or without epinephrine; lidocaine in combination with ketamine has been used for minor surgeries; use with caution;9,46 minor surgeries can be performed by using local anesthesia through direct application of lidocaine 2% to the surgical site93 |
| T92 | |||||
| Experimental studies | |||||
| Lidocaine | — | — | T | Salamander (Desmognathus) | Used for toe-clipping37 |
| Others | |||||
| Bupivacaine | 2 | 5 mg/kg | T, LI | ND | Duration 3 h; use diluted 3:1 with sodium bicarbonate solution12 |
| Lidocaine | 2 | 5 mg/kg | T, LI | ND | Duration 30–60 min; use diluted 3:1 with sodium bicarbonate solution12 |
| Lidocaine 2% | <1 mg/kg | 1 mg/kg | — | ND | Recommended for minor surgeries21 |
| Lidocaine 2% | 286 mg/kg (0.5 mL per site) | — | LI | Grass frogs (R. pipiens) | Used at surgical site83 |
| Lidocaine 4% | — | — | T | Tree frogs (E. coqui) | Used at surgical site; “Frequent additional swabs were applied during surgery”59 |
LI, local infiltration; ND, no data; SI, spinal infiltration; T, topical.
Reference citations have been included after their respective comments or as needed if some information is not common to all sources in a row. If concentrations are not specified, the information was not provided in the original source.