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. 2017 May 23;7:2268. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-02332-9

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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TCDD produces toxic effects while decreasing NAD⁺ levels. Prevention by NAD⁺ repletion. (a) Mean thymus weights as percentages of body weight ± SE for CE treated with TCDD (T) or dioxane (vehicle control, C). For 24 and 48 hr time points, n = 8 individual embryos. For the 72 and 96 hr time points, 4 independent experiments with n = 3–8 embryos per treatment group. (b) Photographs of representative CE thymus glands. (c) Representative CE thymus sections stained with H&E. (d) Representative livers from CE treated with TCDD or vehicle. (e) H&E and Oil Red O stained liver sections. (f) NAD⁺ levels in livers and thymus glands. (g) Mean NAD⁺ levels ± SE in livers and thymus glands of CE treated for 24 hr with TCDD with or without NAM during the last 4 or 16 hr of TCDD treatment (n = 3–8 CE per treatment group). (h) Scatter plot showing thymus weights as percentages of body weight for CE treated with TCDD or vehicle with and without NAM (n = 7–8 CE per treatment group) with means ± SE for each treatment group. (i) Mean NAD⁺ levels ± SE for livers and thymus glands from CE treated with TCDD (24 hr) with or without nicotinamide riboside (NR) for the last 4 hr. (j) Scatter plot showing means ± SE for thymus weight for CE treated with TCDD with or without nicotinamide riboside (NR) (n = 7–9 CE per treatment group). (k) Representative Oil red O stained sections of CE livers. (l) Scatter plot for 4 independent experiments, each with n = 7–10 CE per treatment group, showing the incidence of steatosis. Control livers lacked signs of steatosis. For all Figures: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; ****p < 0.0001; n.s., not significant; TCDD treatment was for 72 hr unless indicated.