Table 2.
Organoids and Their Origin, Culture Techniques, and Applications.
| Organoid | Origin | Culture Technique | Endpoints | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thyroid | mESCs | EB differentiation in hanging drops | Functional thyroid organoid | 20 |
| Pancreas | Mouse embryo pancreas progenitor | Matrigel embedding | Epithelial derivatives including endocrine cells | 21 |
| Liver | mLGR5+ SC | Matrigel embedding | Bile ducts and hepatocytes to model alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency and Alagille syndrome | 22 |
| Liver | hPSCs | Co-culture with HUVECs and hMSCs on Matrigel after monolayer differentiation toward endoderm | Liver bud derivative | 23 |
| Stomach | Adult SC/gastric glands (m/h) | Matrigel embedding | Adult SC + all stomach epithelial derivatives, excluding parietal cells, to model Helicobacter pylori infection/gastric cancer | 24, 25 |
| Intestine | hESCs/PSCs | Spheroids embedded Matrigel after monolayer differentiation toward hindgut | Intestinal bud, epithelial and mesenchymal derivatives | 26 |
| Vascularized cardiac patch | hESCs | High FCS | Contractile muscle | 27 |
| Cerebral cortex | m/hESCs | EBs generated in low-adhesion U-shaped plates Embedded in Matrigel and cultured in spinner flask |
Cerebral cortex to model microcephaly | 28 |
| Thymus | Fibroblasts | Reprograming induced by FOXN1 | All types of thymic epithelial cells on transplantation | 29 |
| Kidney | hESCs/PSCs | Subculture in air-liquid interface after differentiation and dissociation | Nephrons associated with a collecting duct network surrounded by renal interstitium and endothelial cells | 30 |
| Kidney | hPSCs | Sandwiched between two layers of Matrigel, differentiation with GSK3β inhibitor | Proximal tubules, podocytes, and endothelium | 31 |
| Lung | mAdult SCs | Matrigel co-culture with lung endothelial cells | Epithelial derivatives + mesenchymal derivatives | 32 |
| Retina | hESCs | SFEBq in low-adhesion V-shaped plates with Matrigel embedding day 2, transfer to Petri dish day 12 | Epithelial + retinal derivatives | 33 |
EB, embryonic body; ESCs, embryonic stem cells; FCS, fetal calf serum; FOXN1, transcription factor forkhead box N1; HUVECs, human umbilical vein endothelial cells; LGR5, leucine-rich repeat containing G protein–coupled receptor 5; m/h, mouse or human; MSCs, human mesenchymal stem cells; PSCs, induced pluripotent stem cells; SCs, stem cells; SFEBq, serum-free floating culture of EB-like aggregates with quick reaggregation.