Fig 1. Map of sub-Saharan Africa showing the distribution of the 80 sites with elephant populations where studies were done to determine the effect elephant had for other species.

The study areas in bright red and with numbers assigned to them were included in the meta-analysis. Those sites in a lighter red had papers published on elephant impact, but the papers did not meet the criteria that we have set for inclusion in the meta-analysis. The shapefiles for the protected areas were sourced from the World Database on Protected Areas (https://www.protectedplanet.net/).