Table 1. Summary of the expression and functions of PGC-1 coactivators in various cancers.

Tissue/Tumor	Experimental Model	Expression Level	Cellular Process regulated	Reference
Breast Cancer	Human specimens and cell lines	Heterogeneous PGC-1α levels: high expression correlates with reduced survival & metastases	Promotes glutamine metabolism in ERBB2+ breast cancers to enhance growth & chemoresistance; induces mitochondrial respiration & ATP production to drive metastasis; promotes vascularization; dictates sensitivity to anti-folate drugs	[24, 39, 44,57, 58]
Colon Cancer	Human specimens	Decreased PGC-1α in tumors compared with normal mucosa	Not determined	[13]
	Human specimens and cell line	Not specified	PGC-1α promotes chemoresistance	[50]
	Mouse model & human cell line	Not specified	PGC-1α promotes tumor growth by regulating mitochondrial & fatty acid metabolism	[17]
Intestinal Epithelium	Mouse model & human cell line	PGC-1α is highly expressed	PGC-1α regulates enterocyte cell fate & protects against tumorigenesis	[15]
	Mouse model	PGC-1β is highly expressed	PGC-1β stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis & induces antioxidant enzymes	[18]
Kidney Cancer	Human specimens and cell line	Decreased PGC-1α correlates with poor outcome	PGC-1α induces mitochondrial function, oxidative stress & sensitivity to cytotoxic therapies	[35]
Liver Cancer	Mouse model & human cell line	Not specified	PGC-1α promotes tumor growth by regulating mitochondrial & fatty acid metabolism; enhances cell survival with p53	[17, 32]
Lung Cancer	Human cell lines	Heterogeneous PGC-1α levels	PGC-1α correlates with an oxidative metabolism signature; enhances cell survival with wild-type p53.	[25, 31, 33]
	Human cell line	Not specified	PGC-1β promotes chemoresistance	[49]
Melanoma	Human specimens and cell lines	Increased PGC-1α in ~20% melanomas; highly heterogeneous among individual cells; PGC- 1α level associates with reduced primary melanoma invasion and improved outcome, but with increased aggressiveness of metastatic disease	PGC-1α promotes mitochondrial biogenesis, protects against oxidative stress to influence drug sensitivity & survival; suppresses migration/invasion gene sets to inhibit metastasis	[25, 26, 46]
Multiple Myeloma	Human cell line	Not specified	PGC-1α promotes vascularization & chemoresistance	[38, 53]
Ovarian Cancer	Human specimens and cell line	Decreased PGC-1α in tumors compared with normal ovaries	PGC-1α induces apoptosis	[14]
Pancreatic Cancer	Human cells	Not specified	PGC-1α promotes oxidative metabolism to maintain cancer stem cell function	[56]
Prostate Cancer	Human specimens, cell line and mouse model	Progressively decreased PGC-1α from primary tumors to metastasis	PGC-1α promotes catabolic metabolism to suppress cancer progression & metastasis	[16]
	Human specimens, cell line and mouse model	Increased PGC-1α in ~5% of patients	PGC-1α promotes mitochondrial biogenesis, ATP production & cell growth downstream of androgen-AMPK axis.	[28]