Table V.

Harnessing the Power of Regenerative Medicine in Vitiligo: Multiple Candidate Cell Populations for Initiating Vitiligo Repigmentation

Cell lineage	Characteristics and technology	Ref.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)	Harvested as adherent cells from mesenchymal tissue Adult stem cells with a lower risk of tumorigenesis that exist in mesenchymal tissues (such as dermis and fat tissue) Ability to differentiate into a broad spectrum of cells, of mesodermal, ectodermal, or endodermal lineages Generally composed of crude cell populations and contain different cell types based on their cell surface antigens	143
Embryonic stem (ES) cells and induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells	Attractive cell sources for melanocyte induction iPS cells are generated from somatic cells, such as fibroblasts using reprogramming methods Limitation for their clinical use: Ethical problems in obtaining ES cells (from fertilized eggs) Potential risk of tumorigenesis for ES and patient-specific iPS cells	144–149
	Valuable material manipulated to reproduce ultrastructural abnormalities in different diseases, by modeling neural crest induction, melanocyte specification, and disease-related pigmentation defects Human and mouse pluripotent stem cells were successfully differentiated into functional melanocytes under conditions that recapitulated the normal developmental process of human melanocytes in an in vitro condition	51
	The pluripotent stem cell techniques: Modeled pathological melanogenesis enhancing the reproduction of the ultrastructural features of pigmentation defects in Hermansky–Pudlak and Chediak–Higashi syndromes Facilitated identification of a novel role of NF1 in the regulation of melanocyte senescence	148, 149
Multilineage differentiating stress-enduring (Muse) cells	Reside among adult human MSCs Have characteristics similar to both pluripotent stem cells and MSCs: Can be isolated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) Ability to self-renew and differentiate into endodermal, mesodermal, and ectodermal lineages from a single cell Low telomerase activity; do not form tumors in vivo, which makes them more attractive, with a higher potential for clinical application than ES and iPS cells	150
	A muse-adipose tissue (AT) cell lineage was purified form the adipose tissue, that are capable of spontaneously differentiating into multiple cell lineages, including neural cells that have a common origin with melanocytes	151
Skin-derived precursor cells (SKPs)	Reported as multipotent mesenchymal stem cells in human foreskins, and in the connective tissue of the dermis and adipose tissue like Muse cells, from which they seem to be distinct Not associated with particular structures such as dermal papilla, connective tissue sheath, or hair follicular epithelium They express the SKP markers Snail and Slug, in contrast to Muse cells	152