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Mechanisms by which IL-1β may directly promote vascular dysfunction and their inhibition by the IL-1Ra recombinant analog anakinra. In vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC), IL-1β synergizes with extracellular high glucose (HG) to exacerbate pro-inflammatory signaling. iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; Glut1, glucose transporter 1; IL-1R, interleukin-1 receptor; NADPH ox., NADPH oxidase; PPP, pentose phosphate pathway; ROS, reactive oxygen species.
