Table 1.
Characteristics of studies on dietary carbohydrate intake with the risk of CRC
| Study (year) | Country | Study design | Participants (cases) | Age (years) | RR (95% CI) for highest compared with lowest category | Adjustment for covariates |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Borugian, M.J. (2002) | North America | Case-control | 1665 (473) | 67.6 ± 12.2 | Colorectal | Adjusted for age, education, family history, QI, years in North America, total kilocalories consumed, and intake of fat, calcium and fibre |
| 1.7 (1.1–2.7) for men | ||||||
| 2.7 (1.5–4.8) for women | ||||||
| Colon | ||||||
| 1.6 (0.9–3.1) for men | ||||||
| 1.7 (0.7–4.0) for women | ||||||
| Rectum | ||||||
| 2.4 (1.2–4.8) for men | ||||||
| 2.7 (1.2–6.2) for women | ||||||
| De Stefani, E. (2012) | Uruguay | Case-control | 1973 (611) | NA | Colorectal | Adjusted for age, sex, residence, urban/rural status, education, family history of colon cancer among first-degree relatives, BMI, smoking intensity, smoking duration in years, alcohol drinking and total energy intake |
| 1.28 (0.96–1.70) | ||||||
| Colon | ||||||
| 1.46 (1.02–2.09) | ||||||
| Rectum | ||||||
| 1.10 (0.75–1.61) | ||||||
| Ghadirian, P. (1997) | Canada | Case-control | 1070 (402) | 35–79 | Colon | Adjusted for gender, age, marital status, history of colon carcinoma in first-degree relatives and total energy intake |
| 0.86 (0.59–1.26) | ||||||
| Higginbotham, S. (2004) | American | Cohort | 38451 (174) | 53.9 | Colorectal | Adjusted for age, BMI, history of oral contraceptive use, post-menopausal hormone use, family history of CRC, smoking (never, past, current), alcohol use, physical activity, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory use (never/rarely, >1 time per week), total energy intake, energy adjusted total fibre (g), energy adjusted total fat (g), energy-adjusted folate (μg), energy-adjusted calcium (mg) and energy-adjusted vitamin D (mg) |
| 2.41 (1.10–5.27) for women | ||||||
| Howarth, N.C. (2008) | American | Cohort | 191004 (2086) | 45–75 | Colorectal | Adjusted for age, ethnicity and time since cohort entry; restricted to subjects with no missing values for family history of CRC, history of colorectal polyp, pack years of cigarette smoking, BMI, hours of vigorous activity, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug use, multivitamin use and replacement, hormone use (women only) |
| 1.09 (0.84–1.40) for men | ||||||
| 0.71 (0.53–0.95) for women | ||||||
| Colon | ||||||
| 1.10 (0.81–1.49) for men | ||||||
| 0.69 (0.50–0.96) for women | ||||||
| Rectum | ||||||
| 0.98 (0.60–1.59) for men | ||||||
| 0.78 (0.42–1.44) for women | ||||||
| Iscovich, J.M. (1992) | Argentina | Case-control | 330 (110) | NA | Colon | Adjusted for fibre at 19.02 g per day, other sources of energy intake |
| 4.46 (1.45–13.71) | ||||||
| Kabat, G.C. (2008) | American | Cohort | 158800 (1476) | 50–79 | Colorectal | Adjusted for age (continuous), education, cigarettes smoked per day, BMI (continuous), height (continuous), hormone replacement therapy (ever, never), history of diabetes (no, yes), family history of CRC in a first-degree relative (yes, no), total metabolic equivalent hours per week from physical activity (continuous), Observational Study participant (yes, no) and intake of total fibre, energy (kcal) and dietary calcium |
| 0.89 (0.64–1.25) for women | ||||||
| Colon | ||||||
| 0.78 (0.49–1.25) for women | ||||||
| Rectum | ||||||
| 1.33 (0.62–2.85) for women | ||||||
| Larsson, S.C. (2007) | Sweden | Cohort | 61433 (870) | 40–76 | Colorectal | Adjusted for age in months and date of enrollment and included the following: education, BMI (weight (kg)/height (m2); <23, 23 to <25, 25 to <30 or 30), total energy intake (continuous) and quartiles of intake of alcohol, cereal fibre, folate, calcium, magnesium and red meat |
| 1.10 (0.85–1.44) for women | ||||||
| Colon | ||||||
| 1.14 (0.83–1.57) for women | ||||||
| Rectum | ||||||
| 0.94 (0.59–1.50) for women | ||||||
| Li, H.L. (2011) | China | Cohort | 73061 (475) | 40–70 | Colorectal | Adjusted for age, education, income, BMI, physical activity, family history of CRC, total energy intake and hormone replacement therapy use by using a Cox model with age as the time scale and stratified by birth year |
| 0.87 (0.66–1.15) for women | ||||||
| Colon | ||||||
| 0.79 (0.55–1.12) for women | ||||||
| Rectum | ||||||
| 1.02 (0.66–1.59) for women | ||||||
| Michaud, D.S. (2005) | American | Cohort | 173229 (1779) | 30–75 | Colorectal | Adjusted for age, family history of colon cancer, prior endoscopy screening, aspirin use, height, BMI, pack years of smoking before the age of 30, physical activity and intake of cereal fibre, alcohol, calcium, folate, processed meat and beef, pork or lamb as the main dish |
| 1.27 (0.93–1.72) for men | ||||||
| 0.87 (0.68–1.11) for women | ||||||
| Colon | ||||||
| 1.21 (0.85–1.71) for men | ||||||
| 0.86 (0.65–1.13) for women | ||||||
| Rectum | ||||||
| 1.45 (0.73–2.38) for men | ||||||
| 0.91 (0.53–1.55) for women | ||||||
| Sieri, S. (2015) | Italy | Cohort | 44225 (421) | NA | Colorectal | Adjusted for education, smoking status, BMI, alcohol intake, calcium intake, folate intake, fibre intake, saturated fat intake, non-alcohol energy and physical activity |
| 1.51 (0.97–2.34) | ||||||
| Colon | ||||||
| 1.20 (0.81–1.79) | ||||||
| Rectum | ||||||
| 1.14 (0.47–2.78) | ||||||
| Slattery, M.L. (1997) | American | Case-control | 4393 (1983) | 30–79 | Colon | Adjusted for age, BMI, family history of first-degree relative with CRC, use of aspirin and/or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, physical activity and dietary intake of fibre, cholesterol, and calcium |
| 1.47 (0.98–2.22) for men | ||||||
| 1.27 (0.82–1.97) for women | ||||||
| Strayer, L. (2007) | American | Cohort | 45561 (490) | 61.9 | Colorectal | Adjusted for age, dietary calories, NSAIDS use, smoking, menopausal female hormone use, screened for CRC, BMI and fibre intake |
| 0.70 (0.50–0.97) for women | ||||||
| Sun, Z. (2012) | Canada | Case-control | 4241 (1760) | 20–74 | Colorectal | Adjusted for total energy intake. Other potential confounders included age, sex, BMI, physical activity, family history of CRC, polyps, diabetes, reported colon screening procedure, cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, education attainment, household income, marital status, regular use of NSAID, regular use of multivitamin supplements, regular use of folate supplement, regular use of calcium supplement, reported HRT (females only), province of residence, and intake of fruits, vegetables, and red meat. Variables were included in the final model based on a ≥10% alternation in the parameter coefficient of interest |
| 0.81 (0.63–1.00) | ||||||
| Tayyem, R.F. (2015) | Jordan | Case-control | 417 (169) | 53.8 ± 12.2 | Colorectal | Adjusted for total energy intake normality of the distributions of dietary intake variables was assessed by the Shapiro–Wilk test. Non-normally distributed variables were log transformed. Other potential confounders included age, gender, BMI, physical activity (METs/week), family history (beyond the second degree) of CRC, education attainment, household income, marital status and tobacco use |
| 1.41 (0.68–2.99) | ||||||
| Terry, P.D. (2003) | American | Cohort | 49124 (616) | 40–59 | Colorectal | Adjusted for age, intake of energy, study centre, treatment allocation, BMI (quartiles), cigarette smoking, educational level, physical activity, oral contraceptive use, hormone replacement therapy, parity (quintiles) and quartiles of alcohol, red meat and folic acid |
| 1.01 (0.68–1.51) for women | ||||||
| Colon | ||||||
| 1.04 (0.63–1.72) for women | ||||||
| Rectum | ||||||
| 0.98 (0.49–1.97) for women | ||||||
| Wakai, K. (2006) | Japan | Case-control | 3042 (507) | 20–79 | Colon | Adjusted for age, sex, year of first visit, season of first visit to the hospital, reason for the visit, family history of CRC, BMI, exercise, alcohol drinking, smoking, multivitamin use, and energy intake |
| 1.16 (0.76–1.79) | ||||||
| Rectum | ||||||
| 1.54 (0.96–2.47) |
BMI, body mass index.