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. 2017 Jun 13;7:3334. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-03500-7

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Comparisons of inaccessible and accessible vegetation structure. (a,b) Example of the landscape mapping approach showing an inaccessible and nearby accessible site (a) and the total proportion of forest and grassland of zonal vegetation in the Cordillera Urubamba between 4200 m and 4900 m calculated from this (b). (c–g) Comparisons of forest structure i.e. stand basal area (c), mean dbh (d), and mean (e) and maximum height (f) of trees, and proportion of deadwoods (g), per 10 × 10 m² forest plot in accessible and inaccessible Polylepis forests. (h,i) Comparison of mean height of herbaceous vegetation (e) and vegetation cover grazed (i) per 2 × 2 m² plot in inaccessible and accessible forest and grassland. Significant relationships between the structural properties and fixed effects (human impact; vegetation type) found upon analysis using generalized linear mixed models (GLMM’s) are noted within the figures (***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05; Tables S13 and S14). Photographs by S.P. Sylvester. Map generated using ArcGIS v.10.1 (http://www.esri.com/).