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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2018 Jan 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Psychiatr Res. 2016 Sep 13;84:119–127. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.09.004

Table 4.

Results of linear regression analyses examining the effect of timing of first exposure to trauma on depressive symptoms, adjusting for covariates and frequency of exposure

N (%) Model 2 (partial adjustment) Model 3 (full adjustment)
F-Statistic (p-value) Beta 95% CI F-Statistic (p-value) Beta 95% CI
Child Maltreatment 15.59 (<.0001) 10.44 (<.0001)
 Early Childhood 449 (15.5) 0.739a,b (0.64, 0.84) 0.633a,b (0.52, 0.74)
 Middle Childhood 809 (28.0) 0.519 (0.44, 0.60) 0.444 (0.36, 0.53)
 Adolescence 366 (12.7) 0.397 (0.29, 0.51) 0.356 (0.25, 0.46)
Other Interpersonal Violence 4.28 (0.005) 3.84 (0.009)
 Early Childhood 123 (4.3) 0.304 (0.12, 0.49) 0.291 (0.10, 0.48)
 Middle Childhood 476 (16.5) 0.344d,e (0.23, 0.46) 0.334e (0.21, 0.46)
 Adolescence 900 (31.1) 0.177 (0.08, 0.27) 0.170 (0.07, 0.27)
 Adulthood 739 (25.6) 0.172 (0.07, 0.27) 0.169 (0.07, 0.27)
Non-Interpersonal Violence 0.95 (0.414) 0.50 (0.684)
 Early Childhood 140 (4.8) 0.099 (−0.07, 0.27) −0.009 (−0.18, 0.17)
 Middle Childhood 495 (17.1) 0.179 (0.07, 0.29) 0.065 (−0.05, 0.18)
 Adolescence 651 (22.5) 0.172 (0.07, 0.27) 0.077 (−0.03, 0.18)
 Adulthood 871 (30.1) 0.113 (0.02, 0.21) 0.041 (−0.06, 0.14)
Any trauma not yet covered 1.26 (0.287) 1.22 (0.302)
 Early Childhood 26 (0.9) 0.195 (−0.16, 0.55) 0.210 (−0.15, 0.57)
 Middle Childhood 59 (2.04) 0.153 (−0.09, 0.39) 0.167 (−0.08, 0.41)
 Adolescence 188 (6.5) 0.056 (−0.08, 0.19) 0.070 (−0.08, 0.22)
 Adulthood 638 (22.1) 0.210 (0.12, 0.29) 0.221 (0.13, 0.31)

The table presents results from Models 2 and 3, which examined age of first exposure (early childhood = age 0–5, middle childhood = age 6–10, adolescence = age 11–18, adulthood = age 19+) on depressive symptoms (z-score standardized). Model 2 (partial adjustment) controlled for age, sex, education, income, employment status, and exposure to any other traumatic event. Model 3 (full adjustment) controlled for all covariates included in Model 2 plus frequency of each trauma event occurrence (0=low frequency; 1=high reported number of occurrences of that trauma exposure). Each trauma type was examined separately, thus the table includes results of eight separate multiple regression models (two for each exposure). Beta coefficients and 95% confidence intervals (CI) indicate effects for developmental timing of exposure relative to the reference of never exposed in any developmental period. Effects are significant at p<0.05 when CI does not include 0.

a

refers to a significant difference (p<0.05) between early childhood versus middle childhood.

b

refers to a significant difference (p<0.05) between early childhood versus adolescence.

c

refers to a significant difference (p<0.05) between early childhood versus adulthood.

d

refers to a significant difference (p<0.05) between middle childhood versus adolescence.

e

refers to a significant difference (p<0.05) between middle childhood versus adulthood.