Table 2.
Tick-borne viruses
| Models available |
|||||||||||
| Disease | Family | Vector | No. infected annually | Mortality rate | Treatment | Vaccine | Immuno- competent | Immuno- compromised | Humanized or zooized | Notes | References |
| Tick-borne encephalitis virus | Flaviviridae | Ixodes ricinus and I. persulcatus | 5000–10,000 | TBEV-Eu and TVEV-Si: 0.5% to 2% TBEV-FE: 40% | None | Available | Mice (Balb/C, C57Bl/6) | None | None | Has been tested in primates but did not cause disease; dogs develop illness | 19, 71 |
| Tick-borne encephalitis virus (modeled with Langat virus) | Flaviviridae | NA | NA | 0% | None | None | Mice (C57Bl/6), rats (infant) | Mice (Ccr5 −/− or IPS-1−/−) | None | Langat virus can infect humans but does not naturally cause disease | 35, 42, 47 |
| Powassan virus | Flaviviridae | Ixodes scapularis, Ixodes cookeii | ~70 in USA since 2001) | 10% to 15% | None | TBE vaccine may produce limited protection | Mice (Balb/C) | None | None | Peromyscus spp. are natural reservoir and can be used to study disease resist-ance | 24, 56 |
| Alkhumra hemorrhagic fever virus and Kyasanur Forest virus | Flaviviridae | Alkhumura: Ornithodoros savignyi, Hyalomma dromedarii Kyasanur: Haemaphysalis spp. | A: 20% since 1995; K: 400–500 | A: 30% K: 20% | None | None | Mice (Balb/C) | None | None | Closely related viruses (~90%), with similar modeling | 57 |
| Louping ill virus | Flaviviridae | Ixodes ricinus | Unknown | 78% in Lagopus lagopus; variable in sheep | None | Available for sheep | Mice (Balb/C), lambs | None | None | Does not naturally infect humans; mouse model produces less variation than lamb model | 60 |
| Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus | Bunyaviridae | Hyalomma spp. | Unknown | 10% to 40% | None | None | Guinea pigs | Mice (STAT1−/− or IFNα/βR−/−) | None | Usually only pathogenic in humans; human-ized animals may be valuable | 15, 16, 33 |
| Heartland virus | Bunyaviridae | Amblyomma americanum | Unknown | Unknown | None | None | Rabbits seroconvert without illness | Mice (AG129) | None | Emerging virus; only a few cases studied; no animal model available; only immuno- deficient mice develop disease | 6, 22 |
| Severe fever with thrombo- cytopenia syndrome virus | Bunyaviridae | Haemaphysalis longicornis and Rhipicephalis microplus | Unknown | ≤30% | None | None | Mice (C57Bl/6J) | Mice (INFAR−/− or A129) | None | T705 and antivirals show some efficacy in animals | 40, 61, 65 |
| Thogotovirus | Thogotoviridae | Boophilus and Rhipicephalus spp. | Unknown | Unknown | None | None | Mice (infant), hamsters, sheep | None | None | Closely related to Dhori virus; can be used to model highly patho- genic influenza | 31, 52 |
| Dhori virus | Thogotoviridae | Hyalomma spp. | Unknown | Unknown | None | None | Mice (ICR) | None | None | Bourbon and Batken viruses are likely very similar | 38, 43 |
| Bourbon virus | Thogotoviridae | Unknown N American tick | Unknown | Unknown (supposed ~ 90%) | None | None | None established (likely similar to Dhori virus and Thotogo-virus) | None | None | Emerging virus; only a few cases studied; no animal model available | none |
| African swine fever virus | Asfirviridae | Ornithodoros spp. | Unknown | 100% | None | None | Swine | None | SCID-beige mice with porcine bone marrow | Infects domestic pigs only (not humans) | 30, 41, 64 |