Table 2.

Common loneliness measures used with older adults in New Zealand

Characteristics	R‐UCLA Loneliness Scale	de Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale	NZ Social Wellbeing Survey question	Social Provisions Scale
Designed for	Measuring young adult, adult, and older adult loneliness	Measuring adult and older adult loneliness	Measuring population loneliness and isolation in NZ Government's Social Wellbeing Questionnaire	Measuring the degree to which children's to older adults’ social relationships provide various dimensions of social support
Construct	Loneliness is subjective, as affect ‘a unidimensional emotional response (thus affective state) to a discrepancy between desired and achieved levels of social contact’ [38; p.283]	Loneliness is subjective, as cognitive. Loneliness as a cognitive construct as ‘a situation experienced by the individual as one where there is an unpleasant of inadmissible lack of (quality of) certain relationships’ [1; p.73]	Loneliness and isolation as indicators of social connectedness 41	Social provision as perceived support measured as Attachment, Reassurance of Worth, Reliable Alliance, Guidance, and Opportunity for Nurturance Social support is a protective factor
Items, domains, & scoring	Version 3_20 item scale 10 in non‐lonely, positive direction and 10 in lonely, negative direction 12‐item short form Developed for use with large‐scale population studies Respondents Indicate how often they feel the way described in each item Scoring 4‐point scale (1) never, (2) rarely, (3) sometimes, (4) often. Positive items are reverse coded. Simple sum of scores; Higher score = more lonely Criticised for measuring social dimension only	11‐item scale 6‐item emotional subscale (negatively worded) 5‐item social subscale (positively worded) Respondents Indicate the extent to which statements apply to their current situation Scoring Original scale 4‐point scale (1) Yes! (2) Yes, (3) No, (4) No! Or revised 3‐point scale (1) Yes, (2) More or less, (3) No. Collapse 1 and 2 for negatively worded and 2 and 3 for positively worded statements Sum of scores Higher score = more lonely Used as a global, unidimensional measure of loneliness, or as separate emotional and social subscales	Single item Q9 ‘How often in the last 12 months have you felt lonely or isolated?’ Scoring 5‐point scale (1) Always, (2) Most of the time, (3) Sometimes, (4) Rarely, (5) Never Lower score = more socially disconnected/lonely	24‐item scale 4 items for each of the six subscales 12 describes the presence of a type of support 12 describes the absence of a type of support Respondents Indicate the extent to which each statement describes his/her current social network Scoring 4‐point scale (1) Strongly disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) Agree, (4) Strongly agree Sum all items after reverse scoring of negatively worded items Subscales can be summed Higher score = greater degree of perceived support
Psychometric properties	Version 3 Standardised for use with older adults, however evaluated as limited utility for assessing loneliness for older adults Reliability Internal consistency: Good, coefficients 0.89―0.94 Test–retest: 0.73 over a one year period CFA Multidimensional 4‐factor CFA = weak‐acceptable. Ranged 0.179 (item 4) to 0.718 (item 6); all statistically significant (P < 0.001). CFI = 0.976, TLI = 0.961	Good utility for use as unidimensional scale with older adults Internal consistency Good, coefficients 0.80―0.90, particularly with older adults Reliability and validity Robust of the overall scale, and the social, and emotional subscales Homogeneity of the scale is not very strong, therefore considered bidimensional for social and emotional factors CFA Unidimensional and multidimensional 2‐factor utility. Marginally acceptable. Ranged 0.495 (item 10) to 0.751 (item 6); all statistically significant (P < 0.001)	Not available Single measures may be readily affected by social desirability concerns 39 Used in The Social Report, Ministry of Social Development Results comparable to national governmental well‐being surveys	Normed data for older adults Reliability Internal consistency: >0.70 across all provisions Test–retest: coefficient 0.37 to 0.66 Validity Predictive: of adult loneliness, depression & health status Convergent: total score for older adults correlated 0.28 to 0.31 (P < 0.05) with life satisfaction, loneliness and depression, as well as with measures of social networks and satisfaction with types of social relationships Discriminant: Intercorrelations among the six provisions 0.10 to 0.51 (mean 0.27)
Administrative burden	Implemented face‐to‐face, telephone, self‐report survey. Some training required	Implemented face‐to‐face, telephone, self‐report survey Some training required	Implemented face‐to‐face, telephone, self‐report survey No training required	Interviewer‐administered Non‐copyrighted, openly available Minimal training required
Respondent burden	Time required: 5 minutes	Time required: <5 minutes 6‐item short form available	Minimal respondent burden Time required: <1 minute	Moderate respondent burden Time required: 5 minutes

CFA, confirmatory factor analysis; CFI, comparative fit index; NZ, New Zealand; R‐UCLALS, University of California Los Angeles Loneliness Scale.