Table 2.

Bioactive compounds of Rosa spp. and their mechanisms of action in rheumatoid arthritis.

Activity	Active Compound	Mechanism of Action	References
Anti-inflammatory	GOPO (1,2-di-O-α-linolenoyl-3-O-β-d-galactopyranosyl-sn-glycerol)	Reduction in peripheral blood polymorphonuclear leukocytes, neutrophils and monocytes migration Reduction in the levels of C-reactive protein (CRP)	Larsen et al. [61] Winther et al. [105] Kharazmi et al. [102]
	Fatty acids (triterpenoic acids, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid and betulinic acid)	Inhibition of COX-1 and COX-2	Jäger et al. [109] Wenzing et al. [110]
		Reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, (IFN)-γ, IL-12) and chemokines CCL5 (RANTES), IP-10 (CXCL10) production	Yan et al. [106] Schwager et al. [107,108]
Inhibition of NF-κB related inflammatory response	Phytosterols β-sitosterol	Attenuation of NF-κB phosphorylation	Whang et al. [115]
	Gallic acid	Reestablishment IκBα and NF-κB association	Choi et al. [116]
	Astragalin and tormentic acid	Inhibition of IkBα phosphorylation and degradation	An et al. [117] Cheng et al. [120]
Antioxidant	Antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, carotenoids, polyphenols and antioxidant enzymes)	Reduction of ROS production	Kirkeskov et al. [101] Schwager et al. [107] Jimenez et al. [21]
		Inhibition of NO release from macrophages	Kirkeskov et al. [101] Schwager et al. [107] Kim et al. [111]
		Protection against cell apoptosis, DNA and mitochondrial H2O2-induced damage and amyloid β peptide-induced oxidative injury	Choi et al. [112] Liu et al. [113]
	Aqueous extract	Inhibition of RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis	Cheng et al. [120]