TABLE 1.
Maternal and offspring characteristics at baseline according to maternal refined-grain intake during pregnancy1
| Overall (n = 918) | Quartile 1 (n = 229) | Quartile 2 (n = 230) | Quartile 3 (n = 230) | Quartile 4 (n = 229) | P2 | |
| Refined grains, g/d | 86.2 ± 49.4 | 36.5 ± 10.3 | 61.0 ± 6.6 | 91.4 ± 13.4 | 156.2 ± 37.9 | <0.001 |
| Maternal characteristics | ||||||
| Age at index child's birth, y | 31.3 ± 4.6 | 31.4 ± 4.7 | 31.7 ± 4.2 | 31.6 ± 4.5 | 30.6 ± 4.8 | 0.08 |
| Prepregnancy BMI (in kg/m2), n (%) | 0.80 | |||||
| <25.0 | 342 (37.3) | 80 (34.9) | 84 (36.5) | 88 (38.3) | 90 (39.3) | |
| 25.0–29.9 | 247 (26.9) | 64 (27.9) | 58 (25.2) | 67 (29.1) | 58 (25.3) | |
| ≥30.0 | 276 (30.1) | 69 (30.1) | 77 (33.5) | 65 (28.3) | 65 (28.4) | |
| Missing or unknown | 53 (5.8) | 16 (7.0) | 11 (4.8) | 10 (4.3) | 16 (7.0) | |
| Socioeconomic status, n (%) | 0.31 | |||||
| High | 415 (45.2) | 101 (44.1) | 104 (45.2) | 120 (52.2) | 90 (39.3) | |
| Middle | 267 (29.1) | 65 (28.4) | 71 (30.9) | 59 (25.7) | 72 (31.4) | |
| Low | 199 (21.7) | 52 (22.7) | 46 (20.0) | 46 (20.0) | 55 (24.0) | |
| Missing or unknown | 37 (4.0) | 11 (4.8) | 9 (3.9) | 5 (2.2) | 12 (5.2) | |
| Nulliparity, n (%) | 354 (37.8) | 101 (44.10) | 80 (34.78) | 81 (35.22) | 92 (40.17) | 0.20 |
| Smoking during pregnancy, n (%) | 148 (16.1) | 32 (14.0) | 40 (17.4) | 36 (15.7) | 40 (17.5) | 0.62 |
| Hypertensive complications,3 n (%) | 49 (5.3) | 14 (6.1) | 8 (3.5) | 13 (5.7) | 14 (6.1) | 0.73 |
| Any MVPA during the third trimester, n (%) | 222 (24.2) | 62 (27.1) | 60 (26.1) | 49 (21.3) | 51 (22.3) | 0.67 |
| Supplements during pregnancy, n (%) | 840 (91.5) | 206 (90.0) | 217 (94.3) | 213 (92.6) | 204 (89.1) | 0.16 |
| GDM medication therapy, n (%) | 68 (7.4) | 19 (8.3) | 14 (6.1) | 17 (7.4) | 18 (7.9) | 0.82 |
| Gestational weight gain, kg | 11.8 ± 8.2 | 11.4 ± 8.2 | 12.1 ± 7.5 | 10.9 ± 9.5 | 12.8 ± 7.4 | 0.07 |
| Cesarean delivery, n (%) | 244 (24.4) | 63 (27.5) | 58 (25.2) | 50 (21.7) | 53 (23.1) | 0.50 |
| Dietary intakes during pregnancy | ||||||
| Total energy, kcal/d | 2390.6 ± 634.1 | 1990.9 ± 570.7 | 2273.1 ± 487.6 | 2561.5 ± 576.3 | 2736.8 ± 628.3 | <0.001 |
| Carbohydrate, % of energy | 53.9 ± 6.0 | 53.9 ± 6.2 | 54.1 ± 6.2 | 54.1 ± 5.4 | 53.3 ± 6.0 | 0.41 |
| Protein, % of energy | 15.7 ± 2.5 | 16.5 ± 2.7 | 15.9 ± 2.4 | 15.5 ± 2.4 | 14.7 ± 2.3 | <0.001 |
| Total fat, % of energy | 30.1 ± 6.0 | 29.2 ± 6.1 | 29.5 ± 6.1 | 30.0 ± 5.4 | 31.6 ± 6.2 | <0.001 |
| Saturated fat, % of energy | 12.0 ± 33 | 11.6 ± 3.4 | 11.7 ± 3.2 | 11.8 ± 3.1 | 12.8 ± 3.4 | <0.001 |
| Monounsaturated fat, % of energy | 9.3 ± 2.1 | 9.1 ± 2.2 | 9.1 ± 2.1 | 9.2 ± 1.9 | 9.8 ± 2.2 | 0.001 |
| Polyunsaturated fat, % of energy | 4.5 ± 0.9 | 4.2 ± 0.9 | 4.5 ± 0.8 | 4.6 ± 0.8 | 4.5 ± 0.9 | <0.001 |
| trans Fat, % of energy | 0.6 ± 0.2 | 0.5 ± 0.2 | 0.5 ± 0.2 | 0.5 ± 0.2 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | <0.001 |
| Cholesterol,4 mg/d | 311.0 ± 96.9 | 314.2 ± 76.0 | 319.2 ± 104.4 | 308.6 ± 99.1 | 302.0 ± 104.9 | 0.26 |
| Cereal fiber,4 g/d | 1.8 ± 2.3 | 2.3 ± 2.5 | 2.0 ± 2.4 | 1.7 ± 2.0 | 1.2 ± 2.2 | <0.001 |
| Glycemic index4 | 79.5 ± 71.9 | 76.3 ± 76.6 | 71.8 ± 81.2 | 74.1 ± 49.5 | 96.0 ± 73.9 | <0.001 |
| Glycemic load4 | 252.9 ± 295.1 | 209.8 ± 279.5 | 218.0 ± 317.9 | 245.5 ± 220.5 | 338.4 ± 333.7 | <0.001 |
| Whole grains, g/d | 152.8 ± 88.2 | 114.8 ± 68.4 | 159.6 ± 77.6 | 198.8 ± 95.6 | 137.8 ± 86.6 | <0.001 |
| Red meat, g/d | 71.9 ± 36.9 | 65.1 ± 46.5 | 72.0 ± 33.3 | 74.9 ± 30.1 | 75.5 ± 35.0 | 0.01 |
| Processed and mixed meat, g/d | 17.1 ± 12.9 | 13.1 ± 10.4 | 16.0 ± 10.7 | 20.0 ± 14.7 | 19.3 ± 14.2 | <0.001 |
| Eggs, g/d | 14.1 ± 11.3 | 11.6 ± 7.8 | 14.1 ± 12.1 | 15.7 ± 12.0 | 14.9 ± 12.2 | <0.001 |
| Desserts and sweets, g/d | 35.6 ± 28.8 | 32.6 ± 28.0 | 32.0 ± 24.2 | 36.1 ± 30.3 | 41.9 ± 31.5 | <0.001 |
| Oil/butter/margarine, g/d | 26.9 ± 20.9 | 19.6 ± 15.1 | 22.4 ± 15.3 | 27.9 ± 19.2 | 37.9 ± 27.0 | <0.001 |
| Vegetables (excluding potatoes), g/d | 129.4 ± 101.3 | 129.0 ± 99.9 | 132.6 ± 106.6 | 141.7 ± 109.6 | 114.3 ± 86.1 | 0.03 |
| Potatoes, g/d | 135.9 ± 88.9 | 124.2 ± 80.2 | 133.8 ± 87.8 | 147.1 ± 95.2 | 138.5 ± 90.7 | 0.04 |
| Legumes, g/d | 13.2 ± 21.1 | 13.3 ± 21.1 | 13.3 ± 26.6 | 15.0 ± 17.9 | 11.0 ± 17.6 | 0.24 |
| Fruit, g/d | 145.3 ± 108.1 | 141.4 ± 116.2 | 153.6 ± 107.2 | 149.1 ± 107.9 | 137.3 ± 100.5 | 0.36 |
| Dairy products, g/d | 654.7 ± 430.9 | 640.5 ± 493.8 | 618.4 ± 347.1 | 671.4 ± 424.4 | 688.7 ± 445.0 | 0.30 |
| Sugar-sweetened beverages, g/d | 456.9 ± 445.6 | 423.2 ± 429.5 | 438.1 ± 429.7 | 480.2 ± 460.3 | 486.1 ± 461.3 | 0.34 |
| Offspring characteristics | ||||||
| Male sex, n (%) | 469 (50.1) | 108 (47.2) | 117 (50.9) | 122 (53.0) | 111 (48.5) | 0.06 |
| Gestational age at delivery, wk | 39.5 ± 1.7 | 39.6 ± 1.6 | 39.5 ± 1.7 | 39.6 ± 1.6 | 39.5 ± 1.9 | 0.64 |
| Preterm birth (<37 wk of gestation), n (%) | 56 (6.1) | 9 (3.9) | 15 (6.5) | 10 (4.3) | 22 (9.6) | 0.04 |
| Birth weight, kg | 3.7 ± 0.6 | 3.7 ± 0.5 | 3.7 ± 0.6 | 3.7 ± 0.6 | 3.7 ± 0.7 | 0.39 |
| Ponderal index, kg/m3 | 25.6 ± 2.8 | 25.6 ± 2.6 | 25.6 ± 2.5 | 25.2 ± 2.7 | 25.8 ± 2.7 | 0.08 |
| Macrosomia (>4500 g), n (%) | 79 (8.6) | 17 (7.4) | 19 (8.3) | 25 (10.9) | 18 (7.9) | 0.56 |
| Small-for-gestational age,5 n (%) | 42 (4.6) | 7 (3.1) | 11 (4.8) | 7 (3.0) | 17 (7.4) | 0.08 |
| Large-for-gestational age,5 n (%) | 276 (30.1) | 66 (28.8) | 72 (31.3) | 73 (31.7) | 65 (28.4) | 0.81 |
1
Values are means ± SDs unless otherwise indicated; n = 918. GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; MVPA, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity [≥3.0 metabolic task equivalents according to CDC guidelines (28)].
2
P values for group comparisons across quartiles of refined-grain intakes during pregnancy were obtained by ANOVA for continuous variables and by chi-square test for categorical variables.
3
Included pregestational hypertension, gestational hypertension, pre-eclampsia, and eclampsia.
4
Values were energy-adjusted using the residual method (19).
5
According to gestational age– and sex-specific distributions of birth weight in the entire Danish National Birth Cohort. Small-for-gestational age: <10th percentile; large-for-gestational age: ≥90th percentile.