Table 4.
Paternal health status and exposures prior to conception and the risk of a child with an orofacial cleft.
| Cases | Controls | Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| N (%) | 392 (62.6) | 234 (37.4) | ||
| * Age at birth, years | ||||
| mean (SD) | 31.0 (7.3) | 30.0 (6.4) | 1.11 (0.99–1.25) | 0.98 (0.84–1.16) |
| Father’s and father’s family history of clefts | ||||
| Yes | 72 (18.4) | 11 (4.7) | 4.66 (2.40–9.01) † | 4.77 (2.41–9.45) † |
| No | 320 (81.6) | 223 (95.3) | Ref | Ref |
| Education level | ||||
| University | 93 (23.7) | 85 (36.3) | Ref | Ref |
| Secondary | 195 (49.7) | 101 (43.2) | 1.77 (1.21–2.59) † | 1.47 (0.97–2.21) |
| None/Primary | 94 (24.0) | 47 (20.1) | 1.89 (1.17–3.06) † | 1.29 (0.74–2.24) |
| Missing | 10 (2.6) | 1 (0.4) | ||
| Pre-pregnancy employment status | ||||
| Unemployed | 12 (3.1) | 14 (6.0) | Ref | Ref |
| Employed | 366 (93.4) | 213 (91.0) | 2.03 (0.92–4.50) | 2.08 (0.90–4.85) |
| Missing | 14 (3.6) | 7 (3.0) | ||
| Pre-pregnancy alcohol use | ||||
| Yes | 247 (63.0) | 162 (69.2) | 0.70 (0.46–1.06) | 0.77 (0.49–1.21) |
| No | 141 (36.0) | 72 (30.8) | Ref | Ref |
| Missing | 4 (1.0) | 0 (0) | ||
| Pre-pregnancy tobacco use | ||||
| Yes | 149 (38.0) | 95 (40.6) | 0.91 (0.65–1.27) | 0.96 (0.67–1.37) |
| No | 238 (60.7) | 138 (59.0) | Ref | Ref |
| Missing | 5 (1.3) | 1 (0.4) | ||
| Frequency of tobacco use | ||||
| <1 | 17 (11.4) | 5 (5.3) | Ref | Ref |
| 1–3 | 28 (18.8) | 19 (20.0) | 0.39 (0.12–1.26) | 0.42 (0.12–1.45) |
| 6–14 | 28 (18.8) | 19 (20.0) | 0.37 (0.11–1.20) | 0.46 (0.13–1.64) |
| 15–20 | 27 (18.1) | 14 (14.7) | 0.52 (0.16–1.72) | 0.65 (0.18–2.34) |
| 20+ | 44 (29.5) | 38 (40.0) | 0.29 (0.10–0.89) † | 0.34 (0.10–1.12) |
| Missing | 5 (3.4) | 0 (0) | ||
| Pre-pregnancy cigarette use | ||||
| Yes | 140 (35.7) | 92 (39.3) | 0.88 (0.63–1.23) | 0.95 (0.66–1.37) |
| No | 243 (62.0) | 141 (60.3) | Ref | Ref |
| Missing | 9 (2.3) | 1 (0.4) | ||
| Frequency of cigarette use | ||||
| <1 | 17 (12.1) | 5 (5.4) | Ref | Ref |
| 1–3 | 24 (17.1) | 18 (19.6) | 0.37 (0.11–1.20) | 0.40 (0.11–1.42) |
| 6–14 | 25 (17.9) | 19 (20.7) | 0.34 (0.10–1.10) | 0.41 (0.11–1.49) |
| 15–20 | 26 (18.6) | 13 (14.1) | 0.54 (0.16–1.81) | 0.68 (0.19–2.52) |
| 20+ | 42 (30.0) | 36 (39.1) | 0.31 (0.21–23.6) | 0.33 (0.10–1.11) |
| Missing | 6 (4.3) | 1 (1.1) | ||
| Chemical exposures | ||||
| Industrial chemical | 40 (10.2) | 39 (16.7) | 0.57 (0.35–0.91) † | 0.51 (0.30–0.85) † |
| Agricultural chemical | 129 (32.9) | 59 (25.2) | 1.47 (1.02–2.12) † | 0.99 (0.66–1.49) |
| Radiation | 20 (5.1) | 21 (9.0) | 1.83 (0.97–3.46) | 0.66 (0.33–1.33) |
| Lead | 10 (2.6) | 12 (5.1) | 0.48 (0.21–1.14) | 0.39 (0.15–1.01) |
| Mercury | 5 (1.3) | 6 (2.6) | 0.49 (0.15–1.63) | 0.37 (0.09–1.47) |
| Chemical waste | 12 (3.1) | 12 (5.1) | 0.58 (0.26–1.32) | 0.58 (0.24–1.42) |
| Agent Orange (Vietnam only) | 5 (3.0) | 1 (1.2) | 2.61 (0.30–22.7) | 3.06 (0.22–42.5) |
| Father’s occupation | ||||
| Farmer | 188 (48.0) | 84 (35.9) | 1.66 (1.19–2.32) † | 1.12 (0.76–1.65) |
| Driver | 64 (16.3) | 40 (17.1) | 0.95 (0.61–1.46) | 1.03 (0.65–1.65) |
| Mechanic | 27 (6.9) | 33 (14.1) | 0.45 (0.26–0.77) † | 0.54 (0.30–0.95) † |
| Factory worker | 15 (3.8) | 20 (8.6) | 0.43 (0.21–0.85) † | 0.42 (0.20–0.87) † |
| Carpenter | 27 (6.9) | 35 (15.0) | 0.42 (0.25–0.71) † | 0.40 (0.23–0.71) † |
| Painter | 37 (9.4) | 28 (12.0) | 0.76 (0.45–1.29) | 0.77 (0.44–1.35) |
| Welder | 33 (8.4) | 25 (10.7) | 0.77 (0.45–1.33) | 0.97 (0.54–1.74) |
| Electrician | 18 (4.6) | 23 (9.8) | 0.44 (0.23–0.84) † | 0.47 (0.24–0.94) † |
Adjusted by child’s sex, mother’s place of residence during pregnancy (rural/city), mother’s and father’s employment status (employed/unemployed), mother’s and father’s education (completed primary school or less/completed secondary school or more), mother’s and father’s age at time of delivery and country. * 5 year OR given. Crude models were adjusted by country. † p is significant at the 0.05 level.