Table 5.
Transmission Risks from the Potential Zoonotic Pathogens.
| Type of pathogen | Pathogen species | Human disease description | Potential transmission route from wildlife to human | Potential zoonotic risk from hunting, butchering or consumption | Referenced evidence of zoonotic infection to humans from wildlife taxa |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virus |
Avian paramyxovirus-1 (Newcastle disease) |
Conjunctivitis or influenza-like disease | Contact with large amounts of virus from infected birds or their carcasses e.g. inhalation |
Hunting Butchering |
|
| Cercopithecine herpesvirus-1 | Herpes B virus disease |
Transcutaneous: via animal bites or scratches Non-bite exposure: via mucous membranes or damaged skin |
Hunting Butchering |
Cercopithecidae: (Holmes et al. 1990; CDC 1987; CDC 1998; Huff and Barry 2003) USA; (Weigler 1992) USA and UK | |
| Cowpox virus (Orthopoxvirus) | Cowpox | Transcutaneous: via animal bites, scratches or damaged skin |
Hunting Butchering |
Elephantidae: (Hemmer et al. 2010; Kurth et al. 2008) Germany | |
| Ebola virus (subtype Reston) | Ebola haemorrhagic fever | Contact with infected animals, body fluids and tissues |
Hunting Butchering |
Cercopithecidae: (Miranda et al. 1999; Morikawa et al. 2007) USA and Philippines | |
| Hepatitis E virus | Hepatitis E |
Foodborne Faeco-oral? Direct contact with infected animal blood? |
Consumption Hunting? Butchering? |
Suidae: (Li et al. 2005b; Masuda et al. 2005; Matsuda et al. 2003; Toyoda et al. 2008) Japan; (Wichmann et al. 2008) Germany. Cervidae: (Takahashi et al. 2004; Tei et al. 2003; Tei et al. 2004) Japan |
|
| Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus | Avian influenza |
Contact with infected respiratory secretions Ingestion of blood or undercooked meat? Faeco-oral? |
Hunting Butchering Consumption? |
||
| Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus | Lymphocytic choriomeningitis |
Transcutaneous: via animal bites Contact with infected animal excretions and secretions |
Hunting Butchering |
||
| Nipah virus | Nipah virus infection |
Ingestion of virus-contaminated food products Contact with infected urine or saliva or tissues |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Pteropodidae: (Epstein et al. 2008) India; (Luby et al. 2006; Luby et al. 2009) Bangladesh | |
| Orf virus (Parapoxvirus) | Contagious ecthyma | Transcutaneous: via damaged skin or wounds |
Hunting Butchering |
Cervidae: (Kuhl et al. 2003; Roess et al. 2010; Smith et al. 1991) USA | |
| Rabies virus and related Lyssaviruses | Rabies and rabies-related disease |
Transcutaneous: via animal bites and scratches Non-bite exposure: via mucous membranes or damaged skin |
Hunting Butchering |
Sciuridae: (Kumari et al. 2014) India; (ProMED-mail 2014b) Costa Rica Viverridae: (ProMED-mail 2009) Tanzania Pteropodidae: (Hanna et al. 2000; Samaratunga et al. 1998; Warrilow et al. 2002; ProMED-mail 2014a) Australia Cercopithecidae: (Favoretto et al. 2001) Brazil; (Summer et al. 2004) India Felidae: (Pandit 1950) India |
|
| Reoviruses (e.g. Melaka virus, Pulau virus) | Acute respiratory disease | Direct transmission from bat to human occurs via close contact? |
Hunting? Butchering? |
Pteropodidae: (Chua et al. 2007) Malaysia | |
| SARS* Coronavirus | SARS |
Mucosal transmission: contact with virus-infected respiratory droplets Indirect transmission via virus-contaminated fomites |
Hunting Butchering |
Viverridae: (Bell et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2005; Xu et al. 2004) China | |
| Simian foamy virus | Simian foamy virus infection | Transcutaneous and mucosal: via animal bites, scratches and saliva splashes |
Hunting Butchering |
Cercopithecidae: (Brooks et al. 2002) Canada; (Huang et al. 2012) China; (Jones-Engel et al. 2005) Indonesia; (Jones-Engel et al. 2008) several Asian countries; (Schweizer et al. 1997) Germany; (Wolfe et al. 2004) Cameroon | |
| Simian type D retrovirus | Persistently seropositive humans without disease | Transcutaneous and mucosal: via animal bites, scratches, saliva splashes? |
Hunting? Butchering? |
Cercopithecidae: (Lerche et al. 2001) USA | |
| Simian virus 40 | Role in human cancers? | Transcutaneous and mucosal: via animal bites, scratches and saliva splashes |
Hunting Butchering |
Cercopithecidae: (Engels et al. 2004) North America; (Shah 1972) India | |
| Swine influenza virus | Swine influenza | Contact with infected respiratory secretions |
Hunting Butchering |
||
| Bacteria | Bacillus anthracis | Anthrax |
Foodborne Transcutaneous: contact with contaminated carcasses and animal products Inhalation of spores |
Consumption Butchering |
Suidae: (ProMED-mail 2011) India Cervidae: (Ichhpujani et al. 2004) India; (ProMED-mail 2001) USA; (Fasanella et al. 2007) Italy |
| Bartonella henselae | Cat scratch disease | Transcutaneous via animal bites and scratches | Hunting | Viverridae: (Miyazaki et al. 2001) Japan | |
| Brucella spp. | Brucellosis |
Foodborne Transcutaneous and mucosal: contact with infected bodily fluids or tissues |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Suidae: (Carrington et al. 2012; Giurgiutiu et al. 2009; Starnes et al. 2004) USA; (Eales et al. 2010; Massey et al. 2011; Robson et al. 1993) Australia; (Garin-Bastuji et al. 2006) France Cervidae: (Brody et al. 1966) Alaska, USA; (Chan et al. 1989) Arctic region; (Forbes 1991) Canada; (Meyer 1966) Alaska, Canada and Russia |
|
| Campylobacter spp. | Campylobacter enteritis |
Foodborne Faeco-oral |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Squamata: (Patrick et al. 2013) USA |
|
| Chlamydophilia spp. | Chlamydiosis | Transcutaneous and aerogenous: contact with infected secretions or excretions |
Hunting Butchering |
||
| Psittacosis (from birds) | Inhalation of infected respiratory secretions or dried faeces |
Hunting Butchering |
|||
| Dermatophilus congolensis | Dermatophilosis | Transcutaneous: direct contact with infected lesions |
Hunting Butchering |
||
| Edwardsiella tarda | Edwardsiellosis |
Foodborne Faeco-oral Transcutaneous: via wound |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Testudines: (Nagel et al. 1982) USA | |
| Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae | Erysipeloid |
Foodborne Transcutaneous: direct contact with infected animal products via damaged skin/wounds |
Consumption Butchering |
Suidae: (Addidle et al. 2009) New Zealand. Galliformes: (Mutalib et al. 1995) USA |
|
| Escherichia coli (Shiga-toxin producing) spp. | Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli infections |
Foodborne Faecal-oral |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Cervidae: (Keene et al. 1997; Rabatsky-Ehr et al. 2002; Rounds et al. 2012) USA; (Nagano et al. 2004) Japan | |
| Francisella tularensis | Tularemia |
Foodborne Transcutaneous or mucosal: direct contact with infected animals Inhalation of aerosolised bacteria |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Suidae: (Deutz et al. 2002) Austria; (Esmaeili et al. 2014) Iran Sciuridae: (Bow and Brown 1946) Canada; (Magee et al. 1989) USA Ursidae: (Chase et al. 1980) USA |
|
| Leptospira spp. | Leptospirosis |
Foodborne: urine-contaminated meat Transcutaneous or mucosal: contact with infected urine |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Cervidae: (Brown 2005) New Zealand Sciuridae: (Diesch et al. 1967) USA; (Masuzawa et al. 2006) Japan Pteropodidae: (Vashi et al. 2010) USA Ursidae: (Anderson et al. 1978) USA |
|
| Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (M. tuberculosis and M. bovis) | Tuberculosis |
Foodborne Transcutaneous: direct contact via damaged skin/wounds Inhalation of aerosolised bacteria |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Cervidae: (Baker et al. 2006) New Zealand; (Fanning and Edwards 1991; Liss et al. 1993; Nation et al. 1999) Canada; (Wilkins et al. 2003) (Wilkins et al. 2008) USA Cercopithecidae: (Une and Mori 2007) Japan Elephantidae: (Michalak et al. 1998; Murphree et al. 2011) USA |
|
| Other Mycobacterium spp. | Mycobacteriosis | Inhalation or ingestion of aerosolised bacteria | Butchering | ||
| Pasteurella spp. | Pasteurellosis | Transcutaneous: via animal bites | Hunting | Felidae: (Capitini et al. 2002; Durazo and Lessenger 2006) USA; (Isotalo et al. 2000) Canada | |
| Salmonella spp. | Salmonellosis |
Foodborne Faecal-oral Transcutaneous: via animal bites and scratches |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Cervidae: (Kuhn et al. 2011) Denmark; (Madar et al. 2012) Hawaii Squamata: (Bhatt et al. 1989; Kelly et al. 1995 ; Friedman et al. 1998; Corrente et al. 2006) USA Testudines: (Fukushima et al. 2008) Japan; (Harris et al. 2009) USA |
|
| Shigella spp. | Shigellosis |
Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Cercopithecidae: (Kennedy et al. 1993) UK | |
| Streptococcus spp. | Streptococcosis | Transcutaneous: direct contact via damaged skin/wounds |
Hunting Butchering |
Suidae: (Dalsjö et al. 2014) Sweden; (Halaby et al. 2000) The Netherlands; (Rosenkranz et al. 2003) Germany | |
| Yersinia pestis | Plague |
Transcutaneous or mucosal: contact with infected animals or carcasses Inhalation of aerosolised bacteria |
Hunting Butchering |
Sciuridae: (Li et al. 2005a) China | |
| Other Yersinia spp. | Yersiniosis |
Foodborne Faeco-oral |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
||
| Parasite | Ancyclostoma spp. | Cutaneous larva migrans | Transcutaneous: infective larvae that penetrate skin | Butchering | |
| Anisakidae spp. | Anisakiasis | Foodborne: infective larvae in meat | Consumption | ||
| Balantidium coli | Balantidiasis |
Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of cysts |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
||
| Cryptosporidium spp. | Cryptosporidiosis |
Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of oocysts |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
||
| Enantomoeba histolytica | Amoebiasis |
Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of cysts |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
||
| Giardia spp. | Giardiasis |
Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of cysts |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
||
| Gnathostoma spp. | Gnathostomiasis | Foodborne: infective larvae in meat | Consumption | Squamata: (Akahane et al. 1998) Japan and Thailand; (Seguchi et al. 1995) Japan | |
| Oesophagostomum spp. | Oesophagostomiasis |
Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of filariform larvae |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
||
| Pentastomidia spp. | Pentastomiasis |
Foodborne: infective larvae in meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of eggs Direct contact with infected animal tissues and respiratory secretions |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Squamata: (Latif et al. 2011; Prathap et al. 1969) Malaysia; (Yao et al. 2008; Ye et al. 2013) China; (Yapo Ette et al. 2003) Ivory Coast | |
| Sarcocystis spp. | Sarcocystosis |
Foodborne: infective sarcocysts in meat from intermediate host or faecal-contaminated meat from definitive host Faeco-oral: ingestion of oocysts from definitive host |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Squamata: (Lau et al. 2014; Tappe et al. 2013) Malaysia | |
| Spirometra spp. | Sparganosis | Foodborne: infective larvae in meat from the second intermediate host | Consumption |
Suidae: (Tanaka et al. 1997) Japan Squamata: (Anantaphruti et al. 2011; Wiwanitkit 2005) Thailand; (Min 1990; Park et al. 2001) South Korea |
|
| Strongyloides spp. | Strongyloidiasis | Transcutaneous or mucosal: infective larvae from faeces that penetrate skin or mucous membranes |
Hunting Butchering |
||
| Taenia spp. | Taeniasis | Foodborne: infective larvae in meat /viscera from intermediate host | Consumption | Suidae: (Fan 1988; Fan et al. 1992) Taiwan | |
| Toxoplasma gondii | Toxoplasmosis |
Foodborne: infective cysts in meat from the intermediate host or faecal-contaminated meat from definitive host Faeco-oral: ingestion of oocysts from definitive host |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Suidae: (Choi et al. 1997) South Korea Cervidae: (McDonald et al. 1990) Canada; (Ross et al. 2001; Sacks et al. 1983) USA Sciuridae: (Alvarado-Esquivel et al. 2008) Mexico Felidae: (Carme et al. 2009) French Guiana |
|
| Trichinella spp. | Trichinellosis | Foodborne: infective cysts in meat | Consumption |
Suidae: (Cui et al. 2011) China; (De Bruyne et al. 2006; Ranque et al. 2000) France; (García et al. 2005) Chile; (Gołab and Sadkowska-Todys 2005) Poland; (Greenbloom et al. 1996) Canada; (Jongwutiwes et al. 1998; Kusolsuk et al. 2010) Thailand; (Owen et al. 2005) Papua New Guinea; (Rodríguez et al. 2004) Spain Cervidae: (Ramasoota 1991) Thailand Ursidae: (Ancelle et al. 2005; Schellenberg et al. 2003) Canada; (Hall et al. 2012; Hill et al. 2005) USA; (Khamboonruang 1991) Thailand; (Yamaguchi 1991) Japan Squamata: (Khamboonruang 1991) Thailand |
|
| Trichuris spp. | Trichuriasis |
Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of embryonated eggs |
Consumption Hunting Butchering |