Table 1.

St Andrews Catalogue of great ape gestures

Gesture	Description	Contains	PTSch	PPan	Gor	Pon
Arm(s) outa	Extend arm(s) out horizontally from the shoulder			+
Arm(s) raise	Raise hand(s) or arm(s) vertically above shoulder	Arm(s) raise with object, arm(s) up, hand(s) raise, raise arm(s)	+	+	+	+
Arm(s) shake	Small repeated back and forth motion of arm(s)	Arm(s) shake on, arm(s) shake with object	+	+	+
Arm(s) swing	Large back and forth movement of arm(s) from shoulder	Arm(s) swing direction, arm(s) swing under, arm(s) swing with object, down, up	+	+	+
Arm(s) wave	Large back and forth movement of arm(s) raise above shoulder	Arm(s) wave with object; Straw wave	+	+	+	+
Beckon	Hand moved in a sweep from elbow or wrist towards signaller	Beckoning, finger curl	+	+	(+)	+
Big loud scratch	Loud exaggerated scratching movement on signaller’s own body	Self-scratch	+	+		+
Bipedal rockinga	Side to side or forward and back movement while standing/walking bipedal (rarely also quadrupedal)	Swagger	+	+	+
Bipedal stance	Standing bipedally, arms often held out to side with back arched		+	+	+
Bite	Recipient’s body is held between or against lips or teeth of signaller	Kiss, mouthing/gnawing, open mouth kissing, submissive kissing	+	+	(+)	+
Body drum	Signaller slaps body with hand(s) to make contact	Armcross, beat sides of head, body beat, body beat with object, chest beat play, chest pat, drum belly, slap cheek, slap shoulders			+
Bouncea	Up and down movement of whole body flexing elbows or knees, typically while quadrupedal		(+)	+	+
Bow	Signaller bends forward from waist while bipedal	Bow-extend, bowing	+	+	+
Chest beat	Signaller slaps chest with cupped hand(s) to make loud audible contact	1-handed chest beat			+
Clap	Palms of both hands or feet brought together with audible contact	Clap hands, feet clap, hand clap	+	(+)	+	+
Dangle	Signaller hangs from arm(s) above another, may shake feet/legs, typically audible with movement in canopy	Dangle with feet shake, rope spinning, rope swinging, swing	+	+	+	+
Disco arms shake	Shaking arms in rotation movement towards self	Circle hands			+
Drum object	Short hard audible contact of alternating palms against object	Drum, drum object fists/palms, slap ground	+		+
Drum other	Short hard audible contact of alternating palms against recipient		+		+
Embrace	Signaller wraps arm(s) around recipient and maintains physical contact	Embrace full, embracing, mounting	+	+	+	+
Feet shake	Small repeated back and forth motion of feet or leg(s)	Legs shake	+		+
Finger in moutha	Finger(s) are placed into the mouth of the recipient		(+)
Gallop	Exaggerated running movement where contact of hands and feet is deliberately audible	Gallop with object, stiff gallop	+	+	+
Grab	Signaller hand(s) is firmly closed over part of recipient’s body	2-handed grab, air grab, hair pulling, hands around head, head-grab, face-grab, grab-hold, grasp, restrain	+	+	+	+
Grab-pull	As grab but closed hand(s) contact maintained and a force exerted to move recipient from current position	2-handed grab-pull, hand in neck, hand leading, pull, pull away, pull face to face, pull hair, pull towards, lead	+	+	+	+
Hand(s) fling	Rapid movement of hand(s) or arm(s) from the signaller towards the recipient	Arm threat, away, go, hand wave off, hitting away, flap, flapping, raise arm quickly, shoo	+	+	(+)	+
Hand(s) on	Hand—typically palm or knuckles—placed on recipient with contact lasting >2 s	Arm on, pat off	+	+	+	+
Hand(s) shake	Small repeated back and forth motion of hand(s) from wrist	Hand(s) shake with object, shake wrist	+	+	+
Head butt	Head is briefly and firmly pushed into recipient’s body	Head on	+	+	+
Head rub	Back and forth movement of palms of hand(s) over the signaller’s head				+
Head shake	Small repeated back and forth motion of head	Bob, chin up/nod, head bob, head nod, head rock, head shake with object, head tipping, head turn, head twirl, tip head	+	+	+	+
Head stand	Signaller bends forward and places head on ground		+	+	(+)	+
Hide	Body part, e.g. face, genitals, is hidden by the hand(s) or arm(s)	Cover, hide face, hide playface	+		+	+
Hip thrusta	Sitting, crouching, or standing, the hips are thrust forward (single or repeated)	Thrust	+	+
Hit with object	Signaller brings object into short hard contact with recipient’s body	Club	+	+	+
Jump	While bipedal both feet leave ground simultaneously with horizontal displacement	Bipedal jump	+	+	+
Kick	Foot/feet brought into short hard contact with recipient’s body with horizontal movement	Kick backwards	+	+	+
Knock object	Back of hand/knuckles brought into short hard audible contact with object	Knock, rap, rap knuckles	+	+	+
Leaf clip	Strips are torn from a leaf/leaves using hand or mouth, making a conspicuous rhythmic sound	Clip leaf	+
Leaf drop	A leaf(s) is picked off and dropped, usually signaller is above recipient	(note: similar usage to leaf clip)		+
Leg(s) flap	Sitting with knees bent, one or both legs opened and closed to the side (single or repeated)			+
Leg(s) rub	Back and forth movement of palms of hand(s) over the signaller’s leg(s)				+
Leg(s) swing	Large back and forth movement of leg(s) from hip		+	+	+
Lick hand	Licking of the palm frantically and repetitively				+
Look	Signaller holds eye contact with recipient lasting >2 s	Peer, peering, putting face close, look back, wait	+	+	+	+
Mouth stroke	Signallers palm or fingers repeatedly run over mouth area of recipient	Hand beg, rub chin	+	+
Object in mouth	Signaller approaches recipient while carrying object (e.g. small branch) in the mouth		+		(+)
Object move	Object is displaced in one direction, contact is maintained with object throughout	Branch dragging, drag branch, push backwards, push object, rake/scratch dead leaves, scrub, sway vegetation	+	+	+	+
Object on head	Object is placed on head		(b)	(b)	+	+
Object shake	Repeated back and forth movement of an object	Branch shaking, branch rinse, flail, shake detached branch, shake object	+	+	+	+
Pirouette	Signaller turns around their body’s vertical axis	Ice skating, Pirouette with object	+	+	+
Poke	Firm, brief, push of one or more fingers into recipient’s body, may be repeated	Poke at, poking, hard touch, tickling and poking	+	+	+	+
Pounce	Signaller displaces through air to land quadrupedally on the body of the recipient		+	+	+
Present body part	Body part is moved to deliberately expose an area to recipient’s attention	Back offer, belly offer, foot back, foot present, present climb-on, present groom, flexed knees, leg bending, lead forward, lie with back to another, lower/raise leg, lowering back, solicit grooming, turn face downwards	+	+	(+)	+
Present genitals	Genitals are moved to deliberately expose them to recipient’s attention	Present, present genitals forwards/backwards, present rear, present with limbs flexed	+	+	+	+
Punch object/ground	Movement of whole arm, with short hard audible contact of closed fist to an object or the ground	Backhand, thump	+		+
Punch other	As punch object/ground but contact is with recipient’s body	Hit, wrist hit	+	+	+
Push	Palm(s) in contact with recipient’s body and force is exerted in attempt to displace the recipient	Back push	+	+	+	+
Push directed	A light short non-effective push that indicates a direction of desired movement, immediately followed by the recipient moving as indicated	Direct-hand, positioning, turn head, tactile close gestures	+	+	+	+
Reach palm	Arm is extended to the recipient with hand in open, palm exposed position (no contact)	Beg, begging with hand, extend hand, extend palm, holding hard towards another, reach, reach hand, stretch out hand,	+	+	+	+
Reach wrista	As reach palm, but wrist or back of hand extended towards recipient with palm in sheltered position	Offer arm, reach, stretch out hand, wrist bending	+	+	+	+
Rockinga	Large back and forth movement of body while seated or quadrupedal		+	+	+	+
Roll over	Signaller rolls onto their back exposing stomach, can be accompanied by repeated movements of arms and/or legs	Lie down on back	+	+	(+)	+
Rump rub	Rump area is pushed and/or rubbed with small repeated up and down movements against the body of the recipient	Rump turn	+	+
Shake hands	Signaller grasps recipient’s hand/fingers in their own hand and makes small repeated back and forth movements from the wrist	Hand holding/shaking, hold hand	+	+	(+)	+
Show	Arm holding object is partially extended towards recipient and held					+
Shrug	Shoulder is raised quickly against recipient					+
Side roulade	Body is rotated around the head-feet axis while lying on the ground		+	+	+
Slap object/ground	Movement of the arm from the shoulder with hard short contact of the palm(s) to an object or the ground	Ground slap, hit ground/object, slap surface, slap–stomp	+	+	+	+
Slap object with object	As slap object but the hand(s) which is brought into contact with an object holds another object	Banging, club ground	+	+	(+)
Slap other	As slap object/ground but contact is with recipient’s body	Club another, hit, poke at, simultaneous hit, slap other with object, slapping	+	+	+	+
Somersault	Signaller’s body is curled into a compact position on the ground and rolled forwards or backwards so the feet are brought over the head	Back roll	+	+	+	+
Stiff stance	Standing rigidly with still limbs and forelimbs held tight, usually with facial expression of tight lips				+
Stiff walk	Walk quadrupedally with a slow exaggerated movement	Play walk, stiff 3-feet walk	+	+	+
Stomp	Sole of the foot/feet is lifted vertically and brought into short hard contact with the surface being stood upon	Foot beat, heel kicking, multiple stomp, multiple stomp 2-feet, stamp, stamp 2-feet, stamp object, stamping, stomp 2-feet, stomp ritualized, stomping	+	+	+
Stomp other	As Stomp but contact is with recipient’s body	Foot stomp, jumping, stamping on the back, stomp other 2-feet	+	+	+
Strokea	Stroking another individual with gentle back and forth movement of the palm(s) or fingers	Brush, Stroking	+	+	+	+
Tandem walk	Subject positions arm over the body of the recipient and both walk forward while maintaining position	Arm neck, arm round, embrace half	+	+	+	+
Tap body	Movement of the arm from the wrist or elbow with firm short contact of the fingers to the signaller’s body (may include rhythmic repetition)	Body tapping with object, single body tap, tapping body, tapping contralateral			+
Tap object	As tap body but contact is with object	Tapping object	+	+	+
Tap other	As tap body but contact is with recipient’s body	Tap, tapping other	+	+	+	+
Throw object	Object is moved and released so that there is displacement through the air after release	Aimed throwing, drop branch, lift and drop, throw at, throw threat	+	+	+
Touch other	Light contact of the palm and/or body of the recipient, for under 2 s	Hands on shoulders, hold, light touch, touch, touch-side	+	+	+	+
Water splash	Hand or feet moved vigorously through the water so that there is audible displacement of water	Hit water	+	+	+

+ indicates that the gesture is present with video evidence of intentional use in our group, (+) indicates that the gesture is present but without existing video evidence of intentional use in our group, (b) indicates that the action is seen in that species but with no observations of its intentional use in our group. Gorilla gestures only produced by single captive individuals with a close history of human interaction were excluded here, but these included: face wipe, finger down lips, hand(s) between legs, hands behind back, mouth/lips, teeth, wrist glance

PTSch, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii; PPan, Pan paniscus; Gor, Gorilla gorilla; Pon, Pongo

^aA new gesture type as compared to our previous published catalogues for gorillas (Genty et al. 2009; Tanner and Byrne 1999; Tanner 1998), chimpanzees (Hobaiter and Byrne 2011a, b) and bonobos (Graham et al. 2016)