Table 1.
Examples of studies which have employed post hoc data selection at the level either of participants or trials/items, and their major conclusions.
| Study | Field | Data selection | Major finding |
|---|---|---|---|
| Clark and Squire (1998) | Pavlovian conditioning | Participants classified as unaware by postconditioning verbal reports | Unconscious (procedural) delay but not trace eye-blink conditioning |
| Schultz and Helmstetter (2010) | Pavlovian conditioning | Participants classified as unaware in a concurrent expectancy test | Unconscious autonomic conditioning |
| Jones, Fazio, and Olson (2009) | Pavlovian conditioning | Participants classified as unaware by postconditioning verbal reports | Unconscious evaluative conditioning has an attributional basis |
| Willingham, Nissen, and Bullemer (1989) | Sequence learning | Participants classified as unaware by postlearning verbal reports | Unconscious sequence learning |
| Sanchez, Gobel, and Reber (2010) | Sequence learning | Participants classified as unaware in postlearning recognition and recall tests | Unconscious perceptual-motor sequence learning |
| Weiermann and Meier (2012) | Sequence learning | Participants classified as unaware by postlearning verbal reports | Unconscious sequence learning in young adults, but not children or older adults |
| Batterink, Reber, Neville, and Paller (2015) | Statistical learning | Participants classified as unaware on a recognition test | Unaware participants show statistical learning |
| Harris, Schwarzkopf, Song, Bahrami, and Rees (2011) | Vision | Trials on which participants reported no awareness of visual stimulus | Brightness contrast for invisible stimuli |
| Mogg, Bradley, and Williams (1995) | Vision | Participants classified as unaware in a prime discrimination test | Subliminal threat stimuli prioritized by anxious but not depressed participants |
| Chun and Jiang (1998) | Visual search | Participants classified as unaware in postlearning recognition and verbal report tests | Unconscious contextual cuing of visual search |
| Geyer, Shi, and Müller (2010) | Visual search | Contexts or participants classified as unaware in a postlearning recognition test | Unconscious contextual cuing and contextual priming of visual search |
| Supèr et al. (2001) | Primate vision | Trials classified as “unseen” by saccadic eye movement report | Late but not early processing suppressed for unseen stimuli |
| Charles, King, and Dehaene (2014) | Error detection | Trials classified as unaware by subjective report | Visual stimuli and responses, but not accuracy, coded unconsciously |
| Sklar et al. (2012) | Arithmetic | Participants classified as unaware by postpriming forced-choice test | Unconscious arithmetic |
| Paciorek and Williams (2015) | Language | Participants classified as unaware by postlearning questionnaire | Unconscious semantic generalization |
| Muscarella, Brintazzoli, Gordts, Soetens, and Van den Bussche (2013) | Consumer behavior | Participants classified as unaware by postpriming forced-choice test | Unconscious priming from brand logos |
| Ryan, Althoff, Whitlow, and Cohen (2000) | Memory | Trials on which conscious report of relational manipulation failed | Eye movements reveal unconscious relational memory in normal adults, but not amnesic individuals |
| Hannula and Ranganath (2009) | Memory | Trials on which conscious recognition failed | Eye movements reveal unconscious relational memory driven by hippocampal activity |
| Stark and McClelland (2000) | Memory | Old and new items judged new in a recognition test | Unconscious repetition priming for unrecognized words and nonwords |
| Duke, Fiacconi, and Köhler (2014) | Memory | Participants classified as unaware in a prime discrimination test | Fluency and positive affect unconsciously influence familiarity, but not recollection |
| Slotnick and Schacter (2004) | False memory | Old and related items judged new in a recognition test | Unconscious neural signals distinguish true and false memories |
| Jensen, Kirsch, Odmalm, Kaptchuk, and Ingvar (2015) | Pain perception | Participants classified as unaware in a postconditioning recognition test | Unconscious conditioned analgesia/hyperalgesia |
| Rugg et al. (1998) | Cognitive neuroscience | Old and new items judged new in a recognition test | Neural activity for misses, greater than for correct rejections, reflects unconscious memory |
| Daselaar, Fleck, Prince, and Cabeza (2006) | Cognitive neuroscience | Old and new items judged new in a recognition test | Hippocampal activity for misses, equivalent to that for hits, reflects unconscious memory |
| Koivisto, Mäntylä, and Silvanto (2010) | Cognitive neuroscience | Trials classified as unaware by subjective report | Transcranial magnetic stimulation impairs unconscious motion detection |
| Heerey and Velani (2010) | Social cognition | Participants classified as unaware by postlearning forced-choice test | Unconscious learning of nonverbal social cues |
| Pessiglione et al. (2007) | Motivation | Participants classified as unaware by a forced-choice test | Unconscious motivation of physical effort |
| Sweeny, Grabowecky, Suzuki, and Paller (2009) | Emotion processing | Participants classified as unaware by postpriming forced-choice test | Unconscious affective priming can induce long-lasting biases |