Table 1. Cases of human bone modification (from archaeological and ethnographic literature).
| Period | Site | Artifacts | Bone element | Intention/interpretation | References |
| Upper Paleolithic | Gough’s Cave, England |
Cup | Cranium | Skull-cup production in combination with cannibalism |
(47) |
| Le Placard Cave, France | Cup | Cranium | Skull-cup production | (48, 49) | |
| Isturitz, France | Cup | Cranium | Skull-cup production | (50) | |
| Mesolithic-Neolithic | Lepenski Vir, Serbia | Notation system | Long bone | Marking or counting a series of events |
(51) |
| Neolithic | Heilbronn-Klingenberg, Germany |
Sharpening of diaphysis |
Long bone | Profane tool (paddle) for smoothing surfaces in clay vessel production |
(4) |
| Herxheim, Germany | Cup | Cranium | Skull-cup production | (52) | |
| Europe | Rondelles | Cranium | Amulet with magical or ritual function | (4, 53) | |
| Bronze Age | Europe | Rondelles | Cranium | Amulet with magical or ritual function | (53) |
| El Mirador Cave, Spain |
Cup | Cranium | Skull-cup production in combination with cannibalism |
(54) | |
| Middle Ages | Tübingen, Germany | Flute | Long bone | Make music | (55) |
| Buddhist contexts | India and Tibet | Bowls and drums | Skull | Paraphernalia for religious ceremonies | (56) |
| Recent (20th century) |
Dayak people, Borneo |
Carved ornaments in skulls, attachment of objects with cord |
Skull | Head-hunting as prestige | (57) |
| Naga people, India, and Myanmar |
Attached horns evoke hybrid-like appearance |
Skull | Skulls as human trophies | (31) |