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. 2017 Jun 29;7:4385. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-04076-y

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Multilevel model selected as the most parsimonious fit (according to the AIC) to explain the influence of the independent variables on school grades (dependent variable). The explanatory (independent) variables were: sex, chronotype (MSF_sc), late arrivals during the first hour, class dismissals, and sick leaves (duration). The standardised beta coefficients (β) were negative for each variable and are reported on the solid connecting lines between independent and dependent variables. The interpretation of a negative beta coefficient is the following: for every 1-standard deviation increase in the explanatory variable, the standard deviation of the dependent variable will decrease by the beta coefficient value. For the variable ‘sex’, males were compared with females, meaning that a negative beta coefficient reflected a decrease in grades for males. Time of year and school subject were evaluated in the model as covariates (dashed connecting lines).