Table 1.
Progress in morphological, behavioral, biochemical, bioassay, and genetic characterization of insecticide resistance mechanisms in bed bugs (Cimex spp.)
| Year | Characterization | Targets | Methods | Accession numbera | Resistance mechanisms | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C. lectularius | ||||||
| 2009 | Behavioral | – | Bioassay: SC | – | Behavioral resistance | [89] |
| 2009; 2015;2016 | Bioassay | P450s; esterases | Bioassay (SC/T) plus synergists (e.g. PBO, PBH, EN16/5–1) | Metabolic resistance: P450s, esterases | [127, 128, 136] | |
| 2008; 2011; 2016 | Biochemical | P450s; GSTs; esterases | Biochemical assays | – | Metabolic resistance: P450s, GSTs and esterases | [64, 113, 156] |
| 2016 | Morphological | Cuticle | SEM | – | Penetration resistance | [95] |
| 2008 | Genetic | VGSC | Cloning and sequencing (RACE) | FJ031996; FJ031997 | Target site insensitivity: kdr | [156] |
| 2011 | Genetic | Transcriptome | 454 pyrosequencing (Roche 454 GS FLX Titanium platform) | SRA024509 | Metabolic resistance: P450s | [104] |
| 2011 | Genetic | Transcriptome | High-throughput sequencing (Roche 454 Titanium platform) | SRA043735 | Metabolic resistance: P450s, GSTs and esterases; Target site insensitivity: kdr | [113] |
| 2012 | Genetic | RNA-seq | Illumina high-throughput sequencing (GAII platform) | GSE31823 | Metabolic resistance: P450s, GSTs, ABC-transporters, esterases; Penetration resistance; Target site insensitivity: kdr | [92] |
| 2012 | Genetic | ClCPR | Cloning and sequencing (RACE) | JQ178363 | Metabolic resistance: P450s | [122] |
| 2012 | Genetic | ClAChE1; ClAChE2; ClSChE | Cloning and sequencing (RACE) | JN563927; GU597837;GU597838;GU597839 | – | [168] |
| 2013 | Genetic | CPRR | Data from NCBI | – | Penetration resistance | [94] |
| 2013 | Genetic | Transcriptome | 454 pyrosequencing (Roche 454 GS FLX Titanium platform) | – | Metabolic resistance: P450s, esterases, ABC-transporters; Penetration resistance; Target site insensitivity: kdr | [90] |
| 2016 | Genetic | Genome | Illumina high-throughput sequencing (Illumina HiSeq2000s) | SRS580017 | Metabolic resistance: P450s, esterases, ABC-transporters, GSTs; Penetration resistance; Target site insensitivity: kdr | [197] |
| 2016 | Genetic | Genome; RNA-seq | Illumina high-throughput sequencing | SRS749263; SRR1790655 | Target site insensitivity: kdr, putative GABA receptors; Metabolic resistance:P450s, GSTs, esterases | [93] |
| C. hemipterus | ||||||
| 2011 | Bioassay | P450s | Bioassay (SC) plus PBO | – | Metabolic resistance: P450s | [129] |
| 2007 | Biochemical | P450s; GSTs; Esterases | Biochemical assays | – | Metabolic resistance: GSTs, and esterases | [56] |
| 2015 | Genetic | VGSC(Part) | Sanger sequencing | – | Target site insensitivity: kdr | [17] |
Abbreviations: EN16/5–1 6-[2-(2-butoxyethoxy) ethoxymethyl]-5-propyl-2, 3-dihydrobenzofuranby [127], PBH 3-Phenoxybenzyl hexanoate, a surrogate substrate for carboxylesterases and oxidases [136], SC surface contact, T topical application, SEM scanning electron microscope, ClCPR Cimex lectularius NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase [122], CPRR cuticular protein with the rebers and riddiford consensus [94], ClAChE1, ClAChE2 two C. lectularius acetylcholinesterases, ClSChE C. lectularius salivary gland-specific cholinesterase-like protein [168], RACE rapid amplification of cDNA ends, ABC-transporters ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters
aData from GenBank at NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information)