Table 5.
Resistance mechanisms (verified and candidate mechanisms) in bed bugs (Cimex spp.)
| Mechanism | C. lectularius | C. hemipterus | Insecticide | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Behavioral resistance | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | Pyrethroids | ||
| Physiological resistance | Penetration resistance | Cuticle | Verified by morphological study [95, 103] | Candidate mechanism | A broad spectrum of insecticide classes |
| Metabolic resistance | P450s | Verified by RNAi [90] and synergism studies [127] | Verified by synergism studies [129] | Pyrethroids, OCs, OPs, carbamates, neonicotinoids and pyrroles | |
| Esterases | Verified by synergism studies [127] | Candidate mechanism | Carbamates, OPs, pyrroles, neonicotinoids and pyrethroids | ||
| GSTs | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | OCs, OPs and pyrethroids | ||
| ABC-transporters | Verified by RNAi [90] | Candidate mechanism | Pyrethroids, OCs, OPs, carbamates, and neonicotinoids | ||
| Target site insensitivity | Kdr | Verified by QS combined with FCVB [162] | Candidate mechanism | Pyrethroids and DDT | |
| Altered AChEs | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | OPs and carbamates | ||
| Insensitive GABA receptors | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | Cyclodienes (OCs) and phenylpyrazoles | ||
| Altered nAChRs | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | Neonicotinoids | ||
| Symbiont-mediated resistance | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | OPs | ||