(A) Plasma (CM, n=249 and CC, n=198) and (B) CSF TNF-α (CM, n=167 and NAC, n=13) at enrollment (values on a logarithmic scale). The horizontal line represents median values. Two-sample Wilcoxon rank-sum (Mann-Whitney) test was used to compare median levels between groups. Cerebral malaria (CM), Ugandan community children (CC), North American control children (NAC). NAC samples were obtained from asymptomatic children successfully treated for prior leukemia who had CSF obtained after treatment to rule out return of malignancy (ruled out in all).