Table 2.

Cardiovascular diseases and their risk factors associate with alternations of KP catabolites and enzymes

CVD and risk factors	Alternation of KP catabolites	Samples	KP enzymes	Samples	References
Atherosclerosis	AA↓, 3-HAA↓, KA↑	Serum	IDO↑, IDO activity↑	Plaque, serum	[36, 63]
Myocardial infarction	KA↑, 3-HK↑, AA↑, 3-HAA↑	Plasma	IDO↑	Plasma	[64, 65]
Coronary artery disease	Kyn↑, 3-HK↑	Urine	IDO activity↑	Urine	[66]
Stroke	KA↑	Serum	Active IDO1	Serum	[67]
Diabetes	KA↑, AA↑, XA↑, 3-HAA↑, Kyn↑, PLP↓	Plasma, urine	IDO↑, KAT activity↑	Plasma	[25, 50, 68–70]
Hypertension	Kyn↑, KA↓	Rat brain	Mutation in KAT I, KYNU mRNA↑, KYNU activity↓	Brainstem	[71–73]
Obesity	Kyn↑, KA↑, QA↑	Serum	IDO1↑, KYNU↑, KMO↑, KAT III↑	Omental adipose tissue	[74–77]
Aging	Kyn↑, KA↑, 3-HK↑, AA↑, QA↑	Rat brain	IDO1↑, TDO↓	Brain striatum blood	[78–82]
Smoking (nicotine)	KA↑, PLP↓	Brain	N/A		[83]

Refers to the main text for the expanded form of abbreviations