Table 2. Associations between loneliness and lifestyle or health-related factors of the 2012 Swiss Health Survey¹.

		unadjusted		age and sex adjusted		multivariable adjusted
		OR	95% CI	OR	95% CI	OR	95% CI
Physical and mental health
Chronic disease2	No	1		1		1
	Yes	1.26	[1.17,1.37]	1.42	[1.31,1.54]	1.41	[1.30,1.54]
Hypertension	No	1		1		1
	Yes	0.89	[0.82,0.97]	1.09	[1.00,1.20]	1.07	[0.97,1.17]
High cholesterol	No	1		1		1
	Yes	1.04	[0.95,1.14]	1.33	[1.20,1.47]	1.31	[1.18,1.45]
Diabetes	No	1		1		1
	Yes	1.06	[0.89,1.25]	1.40	[1.18,1.67]	1.40	[1.16,1.67]
Psychological distress3	Low	1		1		1
	Moderate, high	4.12	[3.74,4.55]	4.05	[3.66,4.47]	3.74	[3.37,4.16]
Depression4	No	1		1		1
	Yes	3.43	[2.75,4.28]	3.09	[2.47,3.87]	2.78	[2.22,3.48]
Self-perceived health	Good, very good	1		1		1
	Fair, poor, very poor	1.81	[1.65,1.99]	2.13	[1.92,2.36]	1.94	[1.74,2.16]
Visit to a physician within the past year	No	1		1		1
	Yes	1.34	[1.22,1.47]	1.26	[1.15,1.39]	1.29	[1.17,1.42]
Body mass index	BMI < 25.0 kg/m2	1		1		1
	BMI ≥ 25.0 kg/m2	0.76	[0.70,0.82]	0.94	[0.87,1.02]	0.93	[0.86,1.01]
Lifestyle factors
Smoking status	Never and ever smokers	1		1		1
	Current smokers	1.06	[0.99,1.14]	1.18	[1.09,1.27]	1.13	[1.05,1.23]
Chronic alcohol consumption5	No	1		1		1
	Yes	0.99	[0.84,1.16]	1.04	[0.88,1.23]	1.03	[0.87,1.22]
Binge drinking	No			1
	Yes	1.01	[0.93,1.09]	1.05	[0.96,1.15]	1.09	[0.99,1.19]
Physical activity	≥ 150 minutes per week	1		1		1
	< 150 minutes per week	1.30	[1.20,1.41]	1.31	[1.21,1.43]	1.20	[1.10,1.31]
Diet awareness	Yes	1		1		1
	No	0.97	[0.89,1.05]	0.99	[0.91,1.08]	0.97	[0.89,1.06]
Adherence to the recommendation of fruit and vegetable consumption	Yes	1		1		1
	No	1.13	[1.00,1.27]	1.32	[1.17,1.49]	1.21	[1.07,1.37]

¹ Weighted according to the Swiss general population and adjusted for age, sex, area of residence, nationality, educational level, marital status, household size and social support

² Ongoing disease or health problem lasting for at least 6 months or expected to last for longer than 6 months

³ Measured by the 5-item mental health index

⁴ Measured by the PHQ-9 in the written questionnaire

⁵ Ethanol ≥ 20 g/day for women, ≥ 40 g/day for men