Table 1.
Demographics, employment status, anthropometric, health behaviors, physical activity, sleep, social jetlag and metabolic variables according to obesity status (n = 792)
| Variables | All (n = 792) | Non-obese (n = 369) | MHO (n = 252) | MUO (n = 171) | p* |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 55.9 ± 12.4 | 55.6 ± 12.3 | 55.4 ± 13.4 | 56.4 ± 13.6 | 0.17 |
| Female (%) | 581 (73.0) | 269 (73.1) | 189 (75.3) | 122 (71.3) | 0.65 |
| Marital status – Married (%) | 401 (51.0) | 188 (51.0) | 131 (52.0) | 82 (48.5) | 0.42 |
| Family income – (U$ 553.0) | 504 (63.0) | 235 (63.7) | 151 (60.0) | 118 (69.4) | 0.36 |
| Education – <= 12 years | 507 (64.0) | 231 (62.6) | 165 (65.4) | 123 (72.0) | 0.37 |
| Employment status | |||||
| Day workers (%) | 333 (42.0) | 144 (38.7) | 96 (40.0) | 68 (39.6) | 0.88 |
| Retired (%) | 256 (32.0) | 132 (36.3) | 91 (33.6) | 57 (33.5) | |
| Hours per week | 40.8 ± 8.9 | 41.0 ± 6.7 | 39.4 ± 7.9 | 42.4 ± 7.1 | 0.12 |
| Ex-night worker | 37 (5.0) | 22 (2.8) | 7 (4.7) | 8 (6.0) | 0.17 |
| Health behaviours | |||||
| Smoking status – Yes (%) | 96 (12.0) | 55 (15.0) | 27 (10.7) | 14 (8.1) | 0.05 |
| Alcohol intake – Yes (%) | 220 (28.0) | 103 (28.0) | 75 (29.7) | 41 (24.0) | 0.26 |
| Alcohol – Servings/week | 2.0 [0.75–6.0] | 2.0 [0.5–7.0] | 2.0 [1.0–5.2] | 2.3 [0.5–5.0] | 0.86 |
| Physical activity (PA) – Yes (%) | 294 (37.0) | 134 (36.4) | 93 (37.0) | 67 (39.1) | 0.82 |
| Minutes of PA/weekΧ | 180 [120–300] | 190 [120–300] | 170 [120–300] | 180 [120–290] | 0.31 |
| Chronic diseases | |||||
| Type 2 diabetes mellitus (TD2) (%) | 257 (33.0) | 111 (30.0) | 57 (22.6) | 89 (52.3) | <0.001 |
| Arterial hypertension (SAH) (%) | 526 (66.4) | 223 (63.0) | 174 (69.0) | 129 (75.4) | 0.02 |
| Dyslipidemia (%)⚲ | 324 (41.0) | 148 (40.0) | 89 (35.4) | 87 (50.8) | <0.006 |
| Time of diagnosis of TD2λ | 5.0 [3.0–10.0] | 6.0 [3.0–10.0] | 9.5 [4.0–16.0] | 6.0 [3.0–10.0] | 0.63 |
| Time of diagnosis of SAHλ | 10 [5.0–15.0] | 10.0 [5.0–15.0] | 8.0 [2.0–15.0] | 10.0 [5.0–18.0] | 0.15 |
| Time of diagnosis of dyslipidaemiaλ | 5.0 [2.0–10.0] | 4.0 [2.0–8.0] | 4.0 [2.0–10.0] | 5.0 [3.0–10.0] | 0.13 |
| Anthropometric | |||||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 30.0 ± 6.3 | 25.1 ± 0.2a | 33.4 ± 0.2b | 33.6 ± 0.3b | <0.001 |
| Abdominal obesity (%)Ω | 564 (71.0) | 173 (47.0) | 224 (89.0) | 167 (98.0) | <0.001 |
| High neck circumference (%)Φ | 518 (65.0) | 155 (42.2) | 209 (83.2) | 154 (90.0) | <0.001 |
| Food intake | |||||
| Kcal (kcal/day) | 1467.5 [1212.3–1796.8] | 1439.5 [1199.5–1764.8] | 1496.4 [1221.5–1857.3] | 1511.1[1254.0–1860.0] | 0.34 |
| Carbohydrate (g/day) | 174.1 [137.0–215.1] | 170.0 [136.1–213.6] | 181.2 [136.3–226.5] | 174.1 [137.0–215.1] | 0.21 |
| Protein intake (g/day) | 73.9 [55.7–98.8] | 73.1 [56.4–94.6] | 77.0 [55.0–104.2] | 75.4 [56.3–102.7] | 0.58 |
| Fat intake (g/day) | 51.0 [35.2–69.0] | 51.0 [34.5–67.3] | 52.4 [36.4–73.2] | 51.0 [35.2–70.0] | 0.74 |
| Kcal after 9 p.m. (kcal/day) | 0 [0–165.4] | 0 [0–204.8] | 0 [0–138] | 0 [0–130.0] | 0.70 |
| Circadian | |||||
| Chronotype – MSFsc (h)Ψ | 02:54 [02:06–03:48] | 02:48 [02:00–02:42] | 02:59 [2:07–03:49] | 02:55 [02:12–03:54] | 0.72 |
| Morning (%) | 633 (79.0) | 296 (80.2) | 197 (78.1) | 139 (81.2) | 0.83 |
| Intermediate (%) | 77 (9.7) | 33 (9.0) | 29 (11.5) | 15 (8.8) | |
| Late (%) | 83 (10.4) | 40 (10.8) | 26 (10.3) | 17 (10.0) | |
| Bedtime weekday (h)δ | 22:20 [21:20–23:20] | 22:20 [21:49–23:00] | 22:22 [21:20–23:30] | 22:24 [21:13–23:25] | 0.93 |
| Bedtime weekend (h)δ | 22:50 [21:50–24:00] | 22:48 [21:37–23:00] | 22:55 [21:52–23:55] | 22:49 [21:50–23:51] | 0.35 |
| Waketime weekday (h)δ | 06:00 [05:30–07:00] | 06:00 [05:30–07:00] | 06:22 [06:00–07:00] | 06:00 [05:30–07:30] | 0.43 |
| Waketime weekend (h δ | 07:00 [06:00–08:30] | 07:00 [06:00–08:30] | 07:00 [06:00–08:30] | 07:00 [06:00–08:00] | 0.48 |
| Sleep duration weekday (h) | 07:30 [06:30–09:00] | 07:30 [07:00–09:00] | 07:30 [06:30–09:00] | 07:00 [06:30–09:00] | 0.32 |
| Sleep duration weekend (h) | 08:00 [07:00–09:00] | 08:00 [07:00–09:00] | 08:00 [07:00–09:00] | 08:00 [07:30–09:00] | 0.36 |
| Mean sleeping duration (h) | 07:29 ± 01:50 | 07:36 ± 01:47 | 07:25 ± 02:05 | 07:23 + 01:50 | 0.65 |
| Social jetlag (h) | 00:30 [00:00–01:00] | 00:30 [00:00–01:00] | 0:30 [0:00–01:00] | 0:25 [0:00–01:15] | 0.97 |
| Social jetlag <= 1 h (%) | 524 (66.0) | 279 (75.6) | 193 (76.6) | 126 (73.6) | 0.42 |
| Social jetlag >1 h and <2 h (%) | 117 (14.0) | 48 (13.0) | 39 (15.4) | 30 (17.4) | |
| Social jetlag > = 2 h (%) | 77 (10.0) | 42 (11.3) | 20 (8.0) | 15 (9.0) | |
*One-way ANOVA and Tukey post hoc analyses were performed for normally distributed variables. When the variables were not normally distributed, Kruskal–Wallis tests were used. Variables with significant values in the Kruskal–Wallis test were tested by Dunn’s test with a correction of alpha via Bonferroni’s method. Values are presented as mean and SD for normally distributed data or as median (interquartile range) for non-normally distributed data. ΨChronotype (MSF) was derived from time of mid-sleep on free days (weekend), with further correction for calculated sleep debt – the difference between average sleep duration at weekends and on weekdays. δTime is presented in 24-h clock time. ⚲Diagnosis of hypercholesterolaemia, hypertriglyceridaemia or reduced HDL-C. ΩWaist circumference ≥ 102 cm for men and ≥ 88 cm for women were considered abdominal obesity. ΦNeck circumference ≥ 39 cm for men and ≥ 35 cm for women were considered high. λOnly those reported to have type 2 diabetes mellitus, systemic arterial hypertension or dyslipidaemia were included. ΧOnly those reported to perform physical activities. BMI: Body mass index. MHO: Metabolically healthy obese. MUO: Metabolically unhealthy obese.