Table 3.

In vivo toxicity of moniliformin and Alternaria mycotoxins.

Animal Species	Mycotoxin	Route of Exposure	Exposure Time	Exposure Dose	Effect	Reference
mouse	MON	po-ip	1x		LD50: 20.9 (♀) 29.1 (♂) mg/kg bw (ip), survivors clinically healthy	[13,92]
	TeA	iv-po	1x	0–398 mg/kg bw	LD50: 76–162 (iv) and 81–209 (po), vomiting, diarrhea, hemorrhages, death
Sprague-Dawley rats	MON	po	1x	5 mg/kg bw	no clinical signs	[13,98,99]
			1x	10 mg/kg bw	↓ activity for 24 h, respiratory changes, trembling, piloerection, complete recovery within 48 h
			1x	25–50 mg/kg bw	respiratory and cardiovascular changes, collapse, convulsion and death within 48–83 min
			28 days	3–6 mg/kg bw	no clinical symptoms, no effect on leucocyte and red blood cell counts, food and water consumption or organ and body weights, ↓ phagocytic activity of neutrophils
	TeA	iv-po	1x	0–398 mg/kg bw	LD50: 83–157 (iv) and LD50: 168–240 (po), vomiting, diarrhea, hemorrhages, death
Syrian golden hamster	AME	ip	1x	200 mg/kg bw	severe necrosis and coalescence of visceral organs lethargy, breathing difficulties, flaccid hind limbs↑ resorptions and ↓ fetal weight	[100]
chicken embryo	MON	injection	1x		LD50: 2.8 µg/egg, no gross teratogenic effects in survivors	[92]
	TeA	injection	1x	150–1500 µg/egg	dose-related mortality, LD50: 548 µg/egg	[101]
1-day old chicken	MON	po	1x	0–16 mg/kg bw	LD50: 5.4 mg/kg bw (crop intubation), survivors clinically healthy	[92]
broiler chickens	MON	feed	21 days	200 mg/kg feed	death (56%) ↑ kidney, heart and liver weight ↑ serum albumin, total protein and aspartate aminotransferase	[11,14,102]
				100 mg/kg feed	↓ feed intake and body weight gain ↑ hearth weight ↑ kidney weight if feed also contained 200 mg FB1/kg ↑ incidence of large pleomorphic cardiomyocyte nuclei loss of cardiomyocyte cross striations mild focal renal tubular mineralization
		feed	42 days (day 7–49)	50 mg/kg feed	mortality (13.3%) ↑ feed consumption, ↓ body weight gain, ↓ feed conversion ↑ relative heart and proventriculus weight, ↓ mean corpuscular volume ↑ serum gamma glutamyltransferase activity loss of cardiomyocyte cross striations ↑ cardiomyocyte nuclear size
				25 mg/kg feed	mortality (7.8%) ↑ serum gamma glutamyltransferase activity
	TeA	po	21 days	1.25–2.5 mg/kg bw	↓ weight gain and feed efficiency hemorrhages, erosions of the gizzard, pale mottled spleens, edema of the myocardium, microscopic congestions of blood vessels and hemorrhages
White leghorn chicken	TeA	po	1x		LD50: 37.5 mg/kg bw with hemorrhages of the musculature of the thigh, breast, heart and subcutaneous tissues	[14]
			21 days	0.63 mg/kg bw	pathological changes in spleen and gizzard but no extensive hemorrhages microscopic congestions of blood vessels and hemorrhages
			21 days	1.25–2.5 mg/kg bw	↓ weight gain and feed efficiency hemorrhages, erosions of the gizzard, pale mottled spleens, edema of the myocardium, microscopic congestions of blood vessels and hemorrhages
turkeys	MON	feed	91 days (day 7–98)	25, 37.5, 50 mg/kg feed	↑ relative heart weight	[102]
				37.5, 50 mg/kg feed	↑ relative liver weight
				50 mg/kg feed	loss of cardiomyocyte cross striations ↑ cardiomyocyte nuclear size, ↑ number of cardiomyocyte mitotic figures
turkey poults	MON	feed	21–28 days	100 mg/kg feed	↓ feed intake, body weight gain, feed efficiency, ↓ relative thymus, bursa and spleen weights, ↓ primary and secondary antibody response to inactivated Newcastle disease virus, ↓ systemic clearance of E. coli	[103]
Japanese quail	MON	feed	35 days	100 mg/kg feed	cardiomegaly, myocardial congestion, hypertrophy, myocardial disarray, ↑ mitochondria, resulting in separation of muscle fibers, swollen and deformed mitochondria with degenerative changes. Congestion, hemorrhages and degenerative changes more pronounced and extensive disruption of muscle fibers and destruction of Z-bands when feed contained both MON and fumonisin B1. Death.	[12]
barrow	MON	feed	28 days	100 mg/kg feed	acute mortality due to apparent cardiac failure ↓ body weight gain ↓ body weight gain, feed consumption and feed efficiency when feed also contained FB1	[104]
dog	TeA	iv-po	1x	25–50 mg/kg bw	severe tachycardia, massive diffuse hemorrhages, (bloody) diarrhea	[13]
		iv	3x	20 mg/kg bw	severe hemorrhagic gastro-enteropathy, death
		iv-po	6–30 days	0.0625–11.2 mg/kg bw	salivation, emesis, tachycardia, hemorrhagic gastro-enteropathy, death
monkey	TeA	iv	3x	20 mg/kg bw	severe hemorrhagic gastro-enteropathy, death	[13]
		iv-po	7–45 days	11.2–89.6 mg/kg	salivation, emesis, hemorrhagic gastro-enteropathy, death

↓ decrease; ↑ increase.