Table 1.
Synopsis showing the main results of the studies discussed, sorted by outcome.
| Effects on Lipid Profile | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Study | Type | Subjects | Age | Duration | Supplementation | Effect |
| Hlais et al. (2013) [28] | RCT | 98 | 18–35 | 12 weeks | Fish oil (2 g/day) vs. n-9 rich oil (8 g/day) | ↓ TCG |
| Berge et al. (2015) [29] | RCT | 17 | 18–36 | 28 days | 832.5 mg/day DHA + EPA | ↓ TCG, VLDL, chylomicrons ↑ LDL ↑ large LDL ⇔ HDL |
| Miyoshi et al. (2014) [30] | RCrT | 10/5 | 20–85 | 4 weeks | 1.9g DHA + 1.5g EPA/day | ↓ Postprandial TGC elevation, VLDL, TGC in chylomicrons ⇔ LDL |
| Buckley et al. (2009) [32] | RCT | 25 | >18 | 5 weeks | DHA rich fish oil | ↓ TCG |
| Singhal et al. (2013) [33] | RCT | 328 | 18–37 | 16 weeks | 1.6 g DHA/day vs. placebo | ↓ TCG, ↓ VLDL |
| Stark et al. (2004) [34] | RCT | 14 | 45–70 | 28 days | 2.8 g DHA vs. placebo | ↓ TGC, ↑ HDL, ↓ TGC/HDL |
| Cazzola et al. (2007) [35] | RCT | 93 62 |
18–42 53–70 |
12 weeks | 1.35/2.7/4 g/day EPA | ↓ TCG ⇔ LDL ⇔ HDL |
| Tholstrup et al. (2004) [27] | RCT | 16 | 35–75 | 3 weeks | Dietary replacement 4 g/day PUFA-rich oil | ↓ TCG, VLDL, IDL ↑ LDL2b APOB ⇔ HDL ↑ HDL2b |
| Wooten et al. (2009) [39] | IT | 11 | 19–47 | 42 days | 2.45 g/day EPA 1.61 g/day DHA |
⇔ HDL and LDL Shifting from HDL subclass type 3 to type 2 |
| Sioen et al. (2009) [41] | IT | 59 | 22–65 | 12 weeks | ALA 5g + 1.5 of other PUFAs/day | ↑ HDL |
| Kaul et al. (2008) [46] | RCT | 86 | >18 | 12 weeks | 2 g/day fish oil vs. placebo/flaxseed/hempseed oil | ⇔ Total cholesterol col ⇔ LDL ⇔ HDL ⇔ TCG |
| Kirkhus et al. (2012) [47] | RCT | 159 | 18–70 | 7 weeks | 1 g EPA and DHA/day vs. placebo | ⇔ Total cholesterol ⇔ LDL ⇔ HDL ⇔ TCG |
| Nilsson et al. (2012) [54] | RCT | 40 | Middle-aged to elderly | 5 weeks | 3 g/day fish oil vs. placebo | ↓TGC |
| Barceló-Coblijn et al. (2008) [48] | RCT | 62 | >40 | 12 weeks | 1.2 g/ 2.4 g/ 3.6 g flaxseed oil/day vs. 0.6 g or 1.2 g fish oil/day vs. placebo | ⇔ Total cholesterol ⇔ HDL ⇔ TCG |
| Cardiac Function and Blood Pressure | ||||||
| Grimsgaard et al. (1998) [49] | RCT | 224 | 36–56 | 4 g/day DHA + EPA vs. 4 g/day corn oil | ↓ HR ↑ ventricular diastolic capacity, ⇔ systolic BP ⇔ diastolic BP |
|
| Shah et al. (2007) [50] | RCT | 26 | 26–36 | 14 days | 1 g/day fish oil vs. 1 g/day corn oil | ↓ resting HR ⇔ systolic BP ⇔ diastolic BP |
| Stark et al. (2004) [34] | RCT | 14 | 45–70 | 28 days | 2.8 g DHA vs. placebo | ↓ resting HR |
| Delodder et al. (2015) [51] | IT | 8 | 23.3 (mean) | 1 intravenous infusion + 3 oral somministrations | 0.6 g/kg body weight of n-3 PUFAs + 0.6 g/kg/die | ↓ maximal HR |
| Holguin et al. (2005) [52] | RCT | 58 | >65 | 6 months | 2 g/day fish oil vs. 2 g/day soy oil | ↑ HR variability with fish oil ↑ HR variability with soy oil |
| Geelen et al. (2003) [53] | RCT | 84 | 50–70 | 12 weeks | 3.5 g/day fish oil vs. placebo | ⇔ HR variability and baroreflex sensitivity |
| Nilsson et al. (2012) [54] | RCT | 40 | Middle-aged to elderly | 5 weeks | 3 g/day fish oil vs. placebo | ↓ systolic BP |
| Sioen et al. (2009) [41] | IT | 59 | 22–65 | 12 weeks | ALA 5g + 1.5 of other PUFAs/day | ↓ diastolic BP |
| Theobald et al. (2007) [55] | RCT | 38 | 45–65 y | 3 months | 0.7 g DHA/day vs. placebo | ↓ diastolic BP |
| Macartney et al. (2014) [56] | RCT | 39 | 18–40 | 8 weeks | DHA 560 mg/day + EPA 140 mg/day vs. placebo | ↑ HR decrease in the recovery period ↓ HR during submaximal exercise |
| Effects on Thrombosis, Vascular Health and Inflammation | ||||||
| Phang et al. (2013) [57] | RCT | 94 | 39 (mean) | 4 weeks | 1000 mg EPA + 200 mg DHA/day vs. 200 mg EPA + 1000 mg DHA/day | ↓ platelet aggregation |
| Conquer et al. (1999) [58] | RCT | 19 | 29.5 (mean) | 42 days | 20 g seal oil vs. placebo | ↑ protein C, ↓ plasma fibrinogen |
| Mesa et al. (2004) [61] | RCT | 42 | 23–65 | 4 weeks | EPA-rich oil 9 g/day or a DHA-rich oil 9 g/day vs. placebo | ⇔ lag time for oxidation, ⇔ oxidation rate, ⇔ thrombotic tendency of oxidized LDL |
| Tholstrup et al. (2004) [27] | RCT | 16 | 35–75 | 3 weeks | Dietary replacement 4 g/day PUFA-rich oil | ⇔8-iso-PGF2α ⇔ Vitamin E |
| Kirkhus et al. (2012) [47] | RCT | 159 | 18–70 | 7 weeks | 1 g EPA and DHA/day vs. placebo | ⇔ inflammatory markers ⇔ markers for oxidative stress |
| Miles et al. (2001) [62] | RCT | 16 12 |
<40 >55 |
12 weeks | 1.2 g/day of EPA + DHA | ↓ soluble E-selectin and VCAM-1 in the elderlies |
| Cazzola et al. (2007) [35] | RCT | 93 62 |
18–42 53–70 |
12 weeks | 1.35/2.7/4 g/day EPA | ↓ VCAM-1 |
| Barceló-Coblijn et al. (2008) [48] | RCT | 62 | >40 | 12 weeks | 1.2 g/2.4 g/3.6 g flaxseed oil/day vs. 0.6 or 1.2 g fish oil/day vs. placebo | ⇔ soluble VCAM-1 ⇔ C-reactive protein ⇔ Tumor Necrosis Factor α |
| Phang et al. (2013) [57] | RCT | 94 | 39.6 (mean) | 4 weeks | 200 mg EPA + 1000 mg DHA vs.1000 mg EPA + 200 mg DHA vs. placebo | ⇔ soluble CD36 |
| McEwen et al. (2015) [65] | IT | 40 | 21–64 | 4 weeks | 120 mg/day EPA + 520/day DHA | ↓ fibrin generation |
| Guillot et al. (2009) [66] | IT | 12 | 53–65 | 2 weeks each dose | 200, 400, 800, and 1600 mg/day DHA | ↓ platelet reactivity |
| Kaul et al. (2008) [46] | RCT | 86 | >18 | 12 weeks | 2 g/day fish oil vs. placebo/flaxseed/hempseed oil | ⇔ collagen- stimulated platelet aggregation ⇔ thrombin-stimulated platelet aggregation ⇔ inflammatory markers |
| Khan et al. (2003) [68] | RCT | 173 | 40–65 | 8 months | Placebo/oleic acid rich sunflower oil/evening primrose oil/soya bean oil/tuna fish oil/tuna-evening primrose oil mix | ↑ peak-response to acetylcholine |
| Shah et al. (2007) [50] | RCT | 26 | 26–36 | 14 days | 1 g/day fish oil vs. 1 g/day corn oil | ↑ endothelium-dependent brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilation, ↑ endothelium-independent nitroglycerin-mediated vasodilation |
| Singhal et al. (2013) [33] | RCT | 328 | 18–37 | 16 weeks | 1.6 g DHA/day vs. placebo | ⇔ endothelium-dependent brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilation |
| Miyoshi et al. (2014) [30] | RCT | 10/5 | 20–85 | 4 weeks | 1.9g DHA + 1.5g EPA/day | ↓ postprandial endothelial dysfunction |
| Fahs et al. (2010) [69] | RCT | 20 | 25 (mean) | 1 meal | 540 mg EPA + 360 mg DHA + 3 IU Vitamin E | No brachial artery flow-mediated dilatation impairment after a high fat meal |
8-iso-PGF2α = 8-iso-prostaglandin F2α; BP = blood pressure; DHA = docosahexaenoic acid; EPA = eicosapentaenoic; HDL = high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HR = heart rate; IDL = intermediate density lipoprotein cholesterol; IT = interventional trial (non-randomized); LDL = low density lipoprotein cholesterol; RCT = randomized controlled trial; TGC = triglycerides; VCAM-1 = vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; VLDL = very low density lipoprotein cholesterol. Symbols: ↓ decreased levels, ↑ increased levels, ⇔ no effect.