Figure 2.

Effects of physical exercise (PE) on various molecular phenomena including neurorepair, clearance, glucose metabolism, oxidative stress, and inflammation. ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinases; Akt: protein kinase B; PI3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; GSK-3β: glycogen synthase-3β; SIRT3: sirtuin 3; SOD: superoxide dismutase; HIF-1α: hypoxia-inducible factor 1α; INF-γ: interferon gamma; IL-1β: interleukin 1β; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor alpha; IL-6: interleukin 6; COX-2: cycloxygenase 2; VCAM-1: vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; ICAM-1: intracellular adhesion molecule 1.