. 2016 Jul 29;19(1):53–64. doi: 10.1177/1099800416660758

Table 2.

Description of Outcome Measures and Results of Studies Examining the Effects of Physical Activity Interventions on Brain Health With Middle-Aged and Older Adult Samples.

Author (Year)	Measures			Outcome Results
Author (Year)	PA	MRI	NC	Group Effects	Outcomes (Effect Sizes)
Chapman et al. (2013)	Maximal oxygen consumption (VO_2max) Borg rating of perceived exertion	fMRI: cerebral blood flow	Executive function: Trails B-Trails A Memory: California Verbal Learning Test II, Wechsler Memory Scale IV	MRI: Intervention group had a greater increase in resting cerebral blood flow in the anterior cingulate region compared to the control (p < .05) NC: Intervention group had a significant improvement in immediate (1.6 vs. −2.3, p = .003) and delayed memory (2.0 vs. −0.3, p = .03) when compared to the control from T1 to T3	Unable to calculate
Colcombe et al. (2004)	Maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max) Resting heart rate Rockport 1-mile walk test	fMRI: modified Eriksen flanker paradigm to assess cortical plasticity	Behavioral conflict: reaction time	MRI: Intervention group had significantly greater level of task-related activity in attentional control areas but lower task-related activity in the anterior cingulate region (greater overall cortical plasticity) NC: Intervention group had 11% reduction in reaction time, t(15) = 2.49, p < .04	Unable to calculate
Erickson et al. (2011)	Maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max): treadmill protocol	MRI: brain volume	Spatial memory task: computer assessment	MRI: Intervention group had a significant increase in volume of the left and right hippocampus from T1 to T3 compared to the control (2.12% and 1.97% vs. −1.40% and −1.43%) NC: There were no significant group differences from T1 to T3 in the spatial memory task. However, higher aerobic fitness levels at baseline (r = .31; p < .001) and after intervention (r = .28; p < .004) were associated with better memory performance on the spatial memory task	MRI: L hippocampus: .21 R hippocampus: .20 L anterior hippocampus: .29 R anterior hippocampus: .30 L posterior hippocampus: .12 R posterior hippocampus: .19 L caudate nucleus: .09 R caudate nucleus: .09 Thalamus: .01 BDNF: .11 NC: Unable to calculate
Holzschneider et al. (2012)	Maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2peak): 3-min treadmill or cycle ergometer protocol	fMRI: virtual maze task with retrieval assessment to assess spatial learning capacity	Spatial cognition: viewpoint shift task, path integration task Perceptual cognition: visual discrimination task	MRI: The cycling/spatial intervention group had change in brain activation from T1 to T2, which correlated positively with the change in VO_2peak in the medial frontal gyrus (r = .85, t = 6.03) and the cuneus (r = .81, t = 5.14) NC: No significant differences between physical training groups.	Unable to calculate
Mortimer et al. (2012)	Number of steps per week as measured by pedometer	MRI: brain volume	Neuropsychological battery: Digit Span, Bell Cancellation Test, Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure (copying and recall), Stroop Test, Chinese Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Category Verbal Fluency Test, WAIS-R Similarities Test, Trail Making Test, Clock-Drawing Test, Boston Naming Test, and Mattis Dementia Rating Scale	MRI: Significant increases in brain volume (p < .05) in both the tai chi (t = 2.28) and social intervention (t = 2.03) groups when compared with control. No significant findings for the walking group. NC: Walking group had significant improvement in Rey figure copying (t = −0.063, p = .05), tai chi group had significant improvements in the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale total score (t = 2.98, p = .004), Trail Making Test (p = .002), the Auditory Verbal Learning Test delayed recognition score (t = 2.66, p = .009), and verbal fluency score for naming of animals (t = 2.60, p = .01)	MRI: Unable to calculate NC: (for those with complete data available) Verbal Learning Test—delayed: .23 Stroop Color Word Test: −.32^a
Voelcker-Rehage et al. (2011)	Maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2peak): submaximal graded exercise modified Porszasz treadmill protocol Motor fitness assessment: feet tapping, stick-fall test, one-leg stand	fMRI: Flanker task to assess brain activation patterns	Executive control: modified Flanker task Perceptual speed: Visual Search task IQ: neuropsychological battery (Digit-Symbol Substitution and Identical Picture task, Figural Analogies and Letter Series, Paired Associate Test, Verbal Fluency, Vocabulary test)	MRI: Both intervention groups had decreased activation in the prefrontal areas compared to the control. The coordination group had increased activation in the inferior frontal gyrus, thalamus and caudate, and superior parietal lobule. NC: Both cardiovascular intervention, F(2, 39) = 4.87, p = .013, η² = 0.20, and coordination intervention groups, F(2, 39) = 4.10, p = .024, η² = 0.17, had improved performance accuracy in the Flanker task. The coordination group had improved performance accuracy, F(2, 39) = 5.51, p = .008, η² = 0.22, and speed, F(2, 39) = 11.82, p < .001, η² = .38, in the Visual Search Task	MRI: Unable to calculate NC: Flanker test % correct: −.07 Flanker test reaction time: −.10^a Visual search task % correct: .20 Visual search task reaction time: −.24^a

Note. fMRI = functional magnetic resonance imaging; L = left; MRI = magnetic resonance imaging; NC = neurocognitive; PA = physical activity; R = right.

^aScales are reverse coded where a negative effect size indicates an improved score.