Table 1. Behavioral and Cognitive Consequences.
| Measuring variable | Species | Control groups | Dose & route of PCE | Testing age | Outcomes | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unlearned behaviors | Rhesus Monkey | Cocaine absent fruit given to pregnant dams | 10 mg/kg 2×daily Oral (fruit) | P1–28 | Deficits in orientation, state control, and motor maturity; impaired attention and increased tremulousness | He et al., 2004 |
| Motor | Rat | Saline injected pregnant dams | 60 mg/kg 1×daily,SC | P60–90 | Reduced threshold for flurothyl and kainic acid induced seizures | Baraban and Schwartzkroin, 1997 |
| Social communication | Mouse Rat Mouse Rat Rat |
Non-injected, saline injected, and PF-saline injected pregnant dams | 20 mg/kg 1×daily,SC 15 mg/kg 2×daily,SC 20 mg/kg 2×daily,SC 15 mg/kg 2×daily,SC 15 mg/kg 2×daily,SC |
P2, 3, 4 P1, 14, 21 P25,35,45 P5 P1 |
Altered number and rate of USVs; changes in the pitch, amplitude, duration, and harmonics under basal and stress-induced conditions and social interaction paradigms. |
Hahn et al., 2000 Cox et al., 2012 Kabir et al., 2014 Zeskind et al., 2014 Lippard et al., 2015 |
| Attention & cognition | Mouse | Saline, Phent, and PF-injected pregnant dams | 10, 20, 40 mg/kg 2×daily,SC | P9 P50, 100 |
Reduction in first order Pavlovian conditioning |
Kosofsky and Wilkins, 1998 Wilkins et al., 1998b |
| Attention & cognition | Rabbit | Saline injected pregnant dams | 20 mg/kg 1×daily,SC 3 mg/kg 2×daily,IV |
P27–29 P90–122 |
Working memory deficits |
Sobrian et al., 1995 Thompson et al., 2005 |
| Attention | Rat | Saline injected pregnant dams | 0.5, 1,3 mg/kg 1×daily (E8-E14) and 2×daily (E15-E21), IV | P220 | Impaired attention |
Gendle et al., 2003 Gendle et al., 2004b |
| Attention | Rabbit | Saline injected pregnant dams | 4 mg/kg 2×daily | P90 | Deficits in discrimination learning and attentional processing | Romano and Harvey, 1998 |
| Cognition | Rat | Saline injected pregnant dams | 40 mg/kg 1×daily,SC | P7 | Deficits in discrimination learning of an odor/milk association | Spear et al., 1989a, 1989b |
| Cognition | Rat | Saline injected pregnant dams | 3 mg/kg 2×daily,IV 30 mg/kg 1×daily,IP |
P42–50 P102–107 P64–68 |
Deficits in non-spatial working memory |
Morrow et al, 2002a, 2002b Salas-Ramirez et al., 2010 |
| Cognition | Rat Mouse |
Saline injected Pregnant Dams | 20 mg/kg 1×daily,IP 15 mg/kg 1×daily,SC 20 mg/kg 2×daily,SC 30 mg/kg 1×daily,IP |
P25 P27–31 P120 P69–73 |
Spatial memory deficits |
Bashkatova et al., 2005 Cutler et al., 1996 Lu et al., 2012 Salas-Ramirez et al., 2010 |
| Attention & cognition | Mouse | PF and ad-lib pregnant dams w/o cocaine inhalation | 10-50 mg of cocaine granules sublimated within an inhalation chamber | P30+ | Deficits in sustained visuo-spatial attention and spatial working memory | He et al., 2006b |
| Cognition | Mouse | Saline injected Pregnant Dams | 20 mg/kg 2×daily,SC | P60–P90 | Changes in the recall of fear extinction | Kabir et al., 2013 |
| Social behavior | Mouse | Saline injected PF and non-PF pregnant dams | 40 mg/kg 1×daily,SC 20 mg/kg 2×daily,SC |
P28–36 P24, 35 |
Altered social interactions and pinning behavior |
Wood et al., 1994 Wood et al., 1995 Kabir et al., 2014 |
| Social behavior & aggression | Rat | Non-treated and PF-saline injected pregnant dams | 40 mg/kg 1×daily,SC | P16, 29, 60–70 | Decreased ability to compete successfully for a nipple and increased aggression towards conspecifics | Johns et al., 1998 |
| Reward | Rat Mouse |
PF and non-PF saline injected pregnant dams | 20 mg/kg 2×daily,SC | ∼P150 | Increased cocaine seeking self-administration |
Keller et al., 1996b Rocha et al., 2002 |
| Reward | Rat Rabbit |
Non-treated and PF-saline injected pregnant dams | 40 mg/kg 1×daily,SC 3 mg/kg 2×daily, IV |
P110–150 P54–60 |
Behavioral tolerance and reduced sensitivity to psychostimulants (cocaine and AMPH) |
Heyser et al., 1994 Stanwood and Levitt, 2003 |