Table 1.

Comparison of genetic and cultural evolution as originally modeled by Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman (10) and Boyd and Richerson (11), with citations to recent empirical tests or examples

Process	Genetic evolution	Cultural evolution
Variation	Genetic mutation	Undirected cultural mutation/invention (16)
	Recombination	Recombination (133)
	—	Guided variation or transformation (109, 112)
Inheritance	Particulate	Particulate or “meme-like” (134)
	—	Blending of continuous cultural variation (60)
	Vertical (parent to offspring)	Vertical cultural transmission (75)
	Horizontal gene transfer	Horizontal/oblique cultural transmission (76, 77)
Selection	Natural selection	Cultural selection or direct/content biases (14, 15)
	—	Frequency-dependent biases (e.g., conformity) (88, 89)
	—	Indirect (e.g., success, prestige) biases (92, 99)
Migration	Gene flow	Demic diffusion (movement of people with their cultural traits) (17)
	—	Cultural diffusion (movement of traits without people) (135)
Drift	Genetic drift	Cultural drift (18)