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. 2017 Jan 17;7(1):e1005. doi: 10.1038/tp.2016.276

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Copyright © 2017 The Author(s)

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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(a) Experimental design and timeline. Animals were reared with a caregiver provided with normal or insufficient bedding for nest building, with the latter producing a stressed mother and maltreatment of pups. Following this rearing manipulation, animals were tested in adolescence and adulthood using a test battery associated with depressive-like behavior (forced swim, sucrose preference and social interaction tests). Animals were also scanned twice in both adolescence and adulthood. (b) Maltreatment of pups was verified by observations of maternal and pup behaviors during the low bedding procedure. Compared to control mothers, maltreating mothers spent less time inside the nest and nursing pups and handled pups roughly. Behavioral values are expressed as percentage of observation periods in which behaviors occurred for one of the two observation periods. Percentages of behavioral measures do not add to 100% because behaviors can co-occur or not (for example, nursing sometimes occurs outside the nest). (c–f) Adolescent and adult testing suggests early-life maltreatment produces depressive-like behavior. This affectivity was measured with forced swim (c), sucrose preference (d), and social interaction (e) tests. Differences in social interaction were not due to between group differences in locomotor activity (f). Note: *P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001. Bars show means and error bars represent s.e.m. R-fMRI, resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging.