Table 1.
Summary of molecular mechanisms of fluconazole resistance in Candida spp.
| Mechanism | Gene(s) involveda | Regulator(s) involveda | Species |
|---|---|---|---|
| Drug target overexpression | ERG11 | UPC2 | Candida albicans, Candida parapsilosis, Candida tropicalis |
| Drug target alteration | ERG11 | C. albicans, C. parapsilosis, C. tropicalis, Candida auris | |
| Bypass pathways | ERG3 | C. albicans, C. tropicalis | |
| Efflux pump overexpression | |||
| ABC transporters | CDR1, CDR2, SNQ2, ABC1 | TAC1, PDR1 | C. albicans, Candida glabrata, C. parapsilosis, Candida krusei |
| MFS transporters | MDR1, TPO3 | MRR1 | C. albicans, C. parapsilosis, C. tropicalis, C. glabrata |
| Aneuploidy/loss of heterozygosity | ERG11 | UPC2, TAC1 | C. albicans |
Note:
a
Genes and regulators that have been directly linked to the resistant phenotype in clinical isolates.
Abbreviations: ABC, ATP-binding cassette; MFS, major facilitator superfamily.