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. 2017 Aug 8;7:7484. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-07774-9

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Pathways investigated in this study. (I) Vitamin E biosynthesis pathway. (II) Folate biosynthesis pathway. (III) Vitamin C biosynthesis pathway. (IV) Ascorbic acid-Glutathione-Tocopherol cycle. Letters indicates the catalyzing enzymes in the individual reactions and red letters refers to those enzymes studied in this paper: A, tyrosine aminotransferase; B, HPPD, 4-hydoxyphenyl-pruvate dioxygenase; C, DXPR, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate reductase; D, HGGT, homogentisate geranylgeranyl transferase; E, I, MPBQ-MT, 2-methyl-6-phytyl-1,4-benzoquinol methyltransferase; F, TC, tocopherol/tocotrienol cyclase; G, TMT, tocopherol/tocotrienol methyltransferase; H, HPT, homogentisic acid phytyltransferase; J, GLDH, L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase; K, APX, ascorbate peroxidase; L, MDHAR, monodehydroascorbate reductase; M, DHAR, dehydroascorbate reductase; N, GR, glutathione reductase; O, GTPCH, GTP cyclohydrolase; P, DHN aldolase; Q, HPPK, 6-hydroxymethyldihydropterin pyrophosphokinase; R, DHPS, dihydropteroate synthase; S, DHFS, dihydrofolate synthase; T, DHFR, dihydrofolate reductase; U, FPGS, folylpolyglutamate synthase; V, ADCS, aminodeoxychorismate synthase; W, aminodeoxychorismate lyase; X, GMP, GDP-mannose pyrophosphorylase; Y, GME, GDP-mannose-3,5-epimerase; Z, VTC2, GDP-L-galactose phosphorylase. Abbreviations: HPP, 4-hydoxyphenyl-pyruvate; HGA, homogentisic acid; GGDP, geranylgeranyl diphosphate; DDXP, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-p; GGMB, 6-geranylgeranyl-2-methylbenzene-1,4-diol; GGDMB, geranylgeranyl-2,3-dimethylbenzene-1,4-diol; PDP, phytyldiphosphate; MPQ, 1-methyl-6-phytyl-1,4-benzoquinol; DMPQ, 2,3-dimenthyl-5-phytyl-1,4-benzoquinol; MDHA, monodehydroascorbate; DHA, dehydroascorbate; GSH, glutathione; GSSG, oxidized glutathione; NADP, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; NADPH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; GTP, guanosine triphosphate; DHN-P, dihydroneopterin phosphate; DHN, dihydroneopterin; HMDHP, 6-hydroxymethyldihydropterin; HMDHP-P₂, 6-hydroxymethyldihydropterin diphosphate; DHP, dihydropteroate; DHF, dihydrofolate; THF, tetrahydrofolate; ADC, aminodeoxychorismate; pABA, p-aminobenzoate.