Table 1. . Summary of membrane-derived nanovesicles from different cell types.

Cell types	Disease models/applications	Characteristics	Challenges
Neutrophils	Acute lung inflammation/injury Cancer Sepsis	First leukocyte at site of inflammation Most prevalent leukocyte in blood (50–75%) High-yield production of nanovesicles Targeting of inflamed vasculature	Short circulating half-life
Erythrocyte	Nanosponge for detoxification Diagnostic imaging Nanovaccine	Longest circulating half-life Most abundant blood cells	Less tissue targeting
Platelet	Cancer Thrombosis Diagnostic imaging	Targeting of inflamed/injured vasculature	Isolation and purification Scalability
Monocyte	Cancer Diabetes Diagnostic imaging RNAi delivery vehicles	Higher production yield than exosomes Targeting of inflamed vasculature	Less prevalent leukocyte in blood (2–8% of leukocytes)
EVs	Cancer Small RNA delivery vehicles Anti-inflammatory delivery Parkinson's disease	Secretion from any types of cells Naturally involved in intercellular communication	Low production yield; Difficult purification; Less efficient drug loading; Low scalability; Heterogeneity in size and composition

EV: Extracellular vesicle.