FIG. 1.

LiFU envelope waveforms for pulsed [(B) pLiFU, pulses-s⁻¹ pps, pulse width (PW)] and amplitude-modulated continuous-wave ultrasound [(A) cwLiFU, period T]. Insets show individual cycles of 5 MHz ultrasound with amplitude determined by the envelope. The acoustic radiation force ($F$) is proportional to the acoustic intensity, and the rate-of-change in force is the time derivative ($dF/dt$). (C) Schematic of the toadfish vestibular labyrinth showing the horizontal canal (HC), anterior canal (AC), posterior canal (PC), utriculus (U), sacculus (S), and brain (BR). [Adapted from Popper and Fay (Popper and Fay, 1993) and Ghanem et al. (Ghanem et al., 1998).] Ultrasound (US) was applied from dorsal to ventral (-z) using a spherically focused probe 16 mm in diameter immersed in fluid and located ∼25 mm above the target organ.