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. 2017 Aug 14;7:8004. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-08336-9

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Hypothetical view of the interaction of bacteriophages with mammalian immune cells. Phages are able to interact with (currently unknown) immune receptors and induce corresponding immune responses. The immune responses induced by the bacteriophages can either be pro- of anti-inflammatory. For instance, the tested phages are able to induce the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL1α and IL1β. Through the induction of IL1RN by the phage, the phage is able to inhibit the pro-inflammatory responses that are otherwise induced by these cytokines. Pro-inflammatory cytokines are marked in red (i.e. TNF-α, IFN-γ,IL1α, IL1β, IL-6, IL-17, CXCL1 and CXCL5), anti-inflammatory cytokines are depicted in green (i.e. TGF-β, IL-4, IL-10 and IL1RN). Dark orange depicts proteins that play a key role in the removal or perception of bacterial pathogens (i.e. CD14 and LYZ).