TABLE 1.
Peripheral Hormonal Signals Released as Adaptations to a Reduced Energy Intake and That Regulate Food Intake and Energy Expenditure (10,12–15)
| Primary Site of Hormone Release | Primary Action | ↑ or ↓ With Reduced Energy Intake |
|---|---|---|
| Gastrointestinal tract | ||
| Ghrelin (stomach) | Stimulates hunger | ↑ |
| GLP-1 (intestinal mucosa) | Reduces food and calorie intake | ↑ |
| GIP (intestinal mucosa) | Promotes energy storage | ↑ |
| Cholecystokinin (small intestine) | Promotes satiety | ↓ |
| Peptide YY (small bowel and colon) | Promotes satiety | ↓ |
| Pancreas | ||
| Insulin | Slows fat metabolism | ↓ |
| PP | Decreases appetite and food intake | ↑ |
| Adipose tissue | ||
| Leptin (white and brown fat cells) | Increases appetite | ↓ |