Table 1.

Prevalence of gambling and GD across studies examining ethnic and racial minorities

Minority group	Citation	Location and time period	Sample	Time point	Prevalence
ADOLESCENTS (underage 18)
58 % African American; 36.1 % Caucasian; 5.9 % Other	Goldstein et al. 2009	Flint, Michigan— September 2006 through August 2007	Adolescent emergency department patients who completed a brief self- administered computerized screening questionnaire as part of a RCT on alcohol and violence intervention.	Past year	23 % gambled in the past year 18 % non-African American gambled in the past year 27 % African American gambled in the past year
African American	Martins et al. 2013a; Martins et al. 2008b; Martins et al. 2015c; Storr et al. 2012; Lee et al. 2012	Baltimore, Maryland— 1993 to 2005	Urban first-grade students from 27 classrooms in nine elementary schools who participated in the Preventative Intervention Research Center (PIRC) Second Generation Intervention Trial, a randomized prevention trial, and followed to age 18.	Past year	Martins et al. 2013a (from grade 6–10): 67 % gambled in the past year 21 % at-risk or problem gamblers Martins et al. 2008b (from age 16–18): Among 17-year old African American adolescents (n = 452): 47.4 % past-year gamblers With gambling problems: 32 % males; 6.6 % females Martins et al. 2015c (from age 16– 18): Among African American Gamblers (216/ 427–50.6 %): 72.7 % any gambling problem (males) 27.4 % any gambling problem (females) Storr et al. 2012 (at grade 11): 87 % past year gambling (minority) [99 % African American; 1 % Hispanic; 13.4 % past year gambling (non-minority) Lee et al. 2012 (from age 11–20): 43.3 % social gamblers [85.4 % African American; 14.6 % Caucasian] 11.6 % problem gamblers [88.9 % African American; 11.1 % Caucasian]
White: 86 % (1992) and 86.6 % (1995); Asian American: 2.3 % (1992) and 3.3 % (1995); African American: 1.4 % (1992) and 2.5 % (1995); American Indian: 1.3 % (1992) and 2.4 % (1995); Mexican or Latin American: 1.1 % (1992) and 2.0% (1995); Other/ mixed: 3.3 % (1992) and 2.0 % (1995); Missing or unknown race 4.6 % (1992) and 1.2 % (1995)	Stinchfield et al. 1997	Minnesota—1992 and 1995	Public school students in the 6th, 9th and 12th grades	Past year	Asian American: 11 % weekly/daily gambling (1992) 9.9 % weekly/daily gambling (1995) White: 14 % weekly/daily gambling (1992) 12.3 % weekly/daily gambling (1995) American Indian: 20.6 % weekly/daily gambling (1992) 17.4 % weekly/daily gambling (1995) Mexican/Latin American: 21.2 % weekly/daily gambling (1992) 21.6 % weekly/daily gambling (1995) African American: 21.8 % weekly/daily gambling 18.3 % weekly/daily gambling
85.7 % White 3.0 % Black 1.2 % Chinese 5.4 % Other Asian 4.7 % Ethnicity Unknown	Forrest et al. 2012	Great Britain—2008–2009	Random sample of 8958 British adolescents (11–15) surveyed in 201 schools	Past year	1.9 % Gambling Problem: 3.0 % Asians
121 Asian American; 1659 Caucasian	Kong et al. 2013	Connecticut, USA—2011?	Convenience sample of 1780 adolescents (enrolled in grades 9 to 12) from 10 public high schools	Past year	Classification by Potenza et al. (2011): Not Gamblers: 24.79 % Asian Americans and 16.4 % Caucasians Gambling but not meeting criteria for pathological gambling: 44.63 % Asian Americans and 57.13 % Caucasians At- risk/problem gambling: 30.58 % Asian Americans and 26.40 % Caucasians Classification by DSM-IV: Not Gamblers: 24.79 % Asian Americans and 16.40 % Caucasians. Pathological Gambling: 13.22 % Asian Americans and 3.74 % Caucasians. Low risk: 44.63 % Asian Americans and 57.60 Caucasians At-risk gambling: 13.22 % Asian Americans and 17.96 % Caucasians
Chinese	Cheung. 2014	Hong Kong, China— 2007–2010	A stratified, random sample of 4734 Chinese adolescents aged 12–23	Past year	28 % past-year gambling 2.4 % at-risk gamblers 1.1 % probable pathological gamblers 2.5 % gambled once a week or more often
American Indian 70.7 %; Non-Indian 29.3 %	Peacock et al. 1999	USA—Great Lakes Indian Reservation—year not specified	Students in grades 7–12 enrolled in either a tribal or public school	Past year Lifetime	81.2 % gambled at least once in life 75 % gambled within the last 12 months
87.% African American; 3 % Asian American; 1.3% Caucasian; 1 % Hispanic; 4.7 % Other	Wickwire et al. 2007	USA—year not specified	Students were recruited from nine randomly selected sophomore English classes in two urban high schools	Past year Lifetime	60 % gambled in the past year 80 % gambled at least once in their lives
ADULTS (18 years and older)
Chinese Canadian	Lai 2006	Canada 2001–2002	Random sample of 2257 Chinese last names from phonebooks in Victoria, Greater Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Greater Toronto, and Greater Montreal. Participants aged 55 or older were included	Current	26.6 % current gamblers
76.6 % First Nation/ Aboriginal; 22.6 % Metis/mixed ancestry; 0.3 % Inuit	Currie et al. 2013	Edmonton, Canada—May to December 2010	Urban Aboriginal adults recruited using posters and ads throughout the community	Past year	33.5 % 12-month problem gambling (First Nation/aboriginal) 31.3 % 12-month problem gambling (Métis/ mixed ancestry) 0 % 12-month problem gambling (Inuit)
92.2 % Aboriginal; 3.8 % Torres Strait Island; 4.0 % Both	Hing et al. 2014	Australia—2011	Self-selected Indigenous adults surveyed at three Indigenous festivals, online and in several Indigenous communities.	Past year	19.5 % problem gamblers (all respondents) 25.4 % problem gamblers (completed the PGSI)
Filipino Americans	Kim et al. 2012	San Francisco and Honolulu—1998 to 1999	Participants came from the Filipino American Community Epidemiological Study (FACES)	Past year	12.9 % regular gambling
Indigenous populations	Stevens et al. 2009	Northern Territory of Australia—2002	Non-institutionalized, indigenous and general population, in the Northern Territory of Australia in remote areas (NATSISS) and non-remote areas (NATSISS and GSS).	Past year	Reported Gambling Problems: 14.6 % (NATSISS) & 3.5 (GSS).
Maori (25.1 %); Pacific (13.5 %); Asian (17 %); and Euro/other (44.4 %)	Walker et al. 2009	New Zealand—2006–2007	In-home, nationwide survey captured data from a multi-stage, random probability sample of 1774 adults and 199 15–17 year olds. Maori (New Zealand’s indigenous people), Pacific and Asian peoples, and people in areas of deprivation were oversampled.	Past year	Maori: 12.3 % (8.4–16.2 %) non-gamblers. 58.9 % (53.7–64.1 %) infrequent gamblers. 20.4 % (16.1–24.7 %) frequent non-continuous gamblers. 8.4 % (5.6– 11.2 %) frequent continuous gamblers. Pacific: 29 % (21.6–36.5 %) non- gamblers. 52.2 % (43.9–60.5 %) infrequent gamblers. 8.3 % (5.5–12.1 %) frequent non-continuous gamblers. 10.4 % (6.4–15.9 %) frequent continuous gamblers. Asian: 34 % (27.2–10.8 %) non- gamblers. 52.9 % (45.9–59.8 %) infrequent gamblers. 11.5 % (7.1–16 %) frequent non-continuous gamblers. 1.6 % (0.4–1.5 %) frequent continuous gamblers. Euro/other: 15.7 % (12.7–18.7 %) non- gamblers. 62.6 % (58.8–66.4 %) infrequent gamblers. 18.4 % (15.5– 21.4 %) frequent non-continuous gamblers. 3.3 % (2.1—4.5 %) frequent continuous gamblers.
Aboriginal	Stevens et al. 2012	Northern Territory of Australia—2004–2005	Ten Aboriginal communities were selected for a study of housing improvement and child health. Information used was of 240 caregivers who were surveyed using the NLES to measure gambling problems.	Past year	40.4 % reported problem gambling.
Pacific Islanders	Perese et al. 2011	South Auckland, New Zealand—2000	Data collected as part of the Pacific Islands Families: First Two Years of Life study, which follows a cohort of PI infants and their mothers born at Middlemore Hospital in South Auckland between March to December 2000 (n = 1376).	Past year	30.1 % gamblers at 6 weeks. 30.7 % gamblers at 12 months and 29.4 % at 24 months.
Indigenous populations	Hing et al. 2014a, b	Australia—2011	A convenience sample of 1259 indigenous Australians recruited during 3 Aboriginal cultural and sports festivals. Additionally, an online survey was created and promoted among Aboriginal communities.	Past year	a: 80.3 % past-year gamblers. b: 23.4 % non-gamblers. 28 % non-problem gamblers. 12.5 % low risk gamblers. 16.6 % moderate risk gamblers. 19.5 % problem gamblers.
South East Asians	Petry et al. 2003	Connecticut, USA—2002	Convenience sample of 96 South East Asian refugees attending community service organizations for Laotian, Vietnamese, and Cambodia people	Past year	Overall: 28 % non-problem gamblers. 12 % problem gamblers. 58 % pathological gamblers. Non-problem gamblers: 41 % Laotian; 19 % Cambodian; 41 % Vietnamese. Problem gamblers: 27 % Laotian; 64 % Cambodian; 9 % Vietnamese. Pathological: 28 % Laotian; 31 % Cambodian; 41 % Vietnamese.
Inuit	Larsen et al. 2013a, b	Greenland—2006–2010	Adults from the Inuit Health in Transition Greenland Survey population based general health survey who completed a self- administered questionnaire	Past year Lifetime	a: 4.1 % past year problem gambling (men) 15.8 % lifetime problem gambling (men) 2.8 % past year problem gambling (women) 9.9 % lifetime problem gambling (women) b: 12.7 % lifetime problem gambling (men and women)
African American, Hispanic and other	Barry et al. 2012a; Barry et al. 2011b; Pilver et al. 2014; Alegria et al. 2009	USA—2001–2002	Non-institutionalized, white and black adults from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) from Wave 1	Past year [Barry et al. 2012a; Barry et al. 2011b] Lifetime [Pilver et al. 2014; Alegria et al. 2009]	Barry et al. 2012a: 0.98 % problem or pathological gambling (African Americans) 0.45 % problem or pathological gambling (White) Barry et al. 2011b: 0.5 % problem or pathological gambling (White) 0.4 % problem or pathological gambling (Hispanic) Pilver et al. 2014: 2.8 % at-risk/problem/pathological gamblers [75.63 % White; 10.23 % African American/ Black 9.63 % Other; 4.50 % Hispanic] Alegria et al. 2009: Disordered Gambling: 2.3 % (95%CI: 1.5–3.3 %) Native American/ Asians. 2.2 % (1.8–2.6 %) Blacks. 1.0 % (95%CI: 0.8–1.4 %) Hispanics. Pathological gambling: 0.56 % (95%CI: 0.3–1.2 %) Native Americans. 0.9 % (95%CI: 0.6–1.1 %) Blacks. 0.3 % (95%CI: 0.1–0.5 %) Hispanics.
40.6 % Caucasian; 38.2 % African American; 17.7 % Hispanic	Petry et al. 2011	USA—1999 to 2005	Adults recruited via direct screening efforts conducted at substance abuse treatment centers and ads and flyers placed at those locations. Participants had to score 3 or more on the SOGS, self-report of wagering on at least 4 days and spend at least $ 100 in total in the past 2 months.	Past year Lifetime	70.1 % pathological gambler (lifetime) 55.1 % pathological gambler (past year)
41.5 % Hispanic American; 58.5 % Native American	Westmeyer et al. 2005	Southwest region, North Central region of the USA—year not specified	Community-based survey of rural and urban U.S. veterans.	Lifetime	10 % lifetime pathological gambling (Native American) 4 % lifetime pathological gambling (Hispanic)
56.1 % Asian Americans; 43.9 % non-Hispanic White	Chan et al. 2015	West Coast USA—2009 to 2010	College students (age 18–25) recruited from the psychology subject pool at a large university	Lifetime	Among those who have initiated gambling: 28.9 % problem gambling (Asian American) 16.8 % problem gambling (White American)
American Indian	Cozzetto et al. 1996	North Dakota—year not specified	Five samples of American Indian North Dakotan adults: North Dakota in general, Fort Totten, Belcourt, Turtle Mountain band of Chippewa, Sioux tribe	Lifetime	6 % compulsive gambler (General North Dakota population) 10 % compulsive gambler (General Chippewa population) 14 % compulsive gambler (General Sioux population)
American Indian	Westermeyer et al. 2008	North Central Area of the USA—1999–2001	Stratified community-based sample of 557 American Indian veterans living on or near 5 reservations, three urban areas, and attending pow-wows.	Lifetime	42 % gamblers. 17 % Non-problem gamblers and 25 % problem gamblers.
Chinese	Wu et al. 2012	China—2012	Convenience sample (n = 932) of Hong Kong or Macao university students.	Lifetime	86 % ever gambled. 1.4 % Problem Gambling.
Black Africans	Peltzer et al. 2006	Thohoyandou, South Africa—year not specified	Black Africans chosen by a venue-based survey at a horse-race betting club.	Lifetime	31 % probable pathological gamblers 20 % potential gambling problems
Indigenous populations	Volberg et al. 1997	New Zealand 1991 and North Dakota 1992	New Zealand sample: nationwide survey by random digit dialing of residential dwellings, n = 3933. Maori and Pacific Islanders were overrepresented. North Dakota sample: random sample of 1517 adults from a telephone list purchased from a survey company. Additionally, 400 people were interviewed from the four countries in North Dakota with the greatest proportion of Native American residents to minimize bias by low telephone ownership.	Lifetime and Current	Indigenous: 8.7 % lifetime problem gamblers; 5.9 % lifetime probable pathological gamblers; 4.6 % current problem gamblers; 2.2 % current probable gamblers (New Zealand). Caucasian: 3 % lifetime problem gamblers; 1.7 % lifetime probable pathological gamblers; 1.4 % current problem gamblers; 0.6 % current probable gamblers (New Zealand). Indigenous: 7.1 % lifetime problem gamblers; 7.1 % lifetime probable pathological gamblers; 5.8 % current problem gamblers; 6.6 % current probable gamblers (North Dakota). Caucasian: 2.5 % lifetime problem gamblers; 0.8 % lifetime probable pathological gamblers; 1.3 % current problem gamblers; 0.5 % current probable gamblers (North Dakota).
53.9 % Native American; 46.1 % non-Native American	Zitzow 1996	Northern Plains of the USA—1990	Aboriginal and non-aboriginal groups at gambling facilities	Not specified	9.1% problematic gamblers (Native American) 4.6 % problematic gamblers (Non-Native American) 2.8 % pathological/compulsive gamblers (Native American) 1.6 % pathological/compulsive gamblers (Non-Native American)
African American	Christensen et al. 2004	Boston, Massachusetts— year not specified	A convenience sample of 67 African American community residents, ages 50 to 88	Not specified	4.4 % gambling disorders
Chinese	Loo et al. 2008	The systematic review included studies from any country that examined gambling among Chinese.	Systematic review using the following keywords: Chinese, ethnicity, culture, addiction (also addictive), and gambling (also gamble) of 25 articles obtained from: PsycINFO (1840-now), Web of Science Databases, Medline (1950-present), Sociological Abstracts (1963—in press), ProQuest Social Science Journals (1994- present), PAIS International (1972- current), and CSA Worldwide Political Science Abstracts (1975-current).	Not specified	26.6–92 % gamblers. 2.5–1 % problem gamblers. 1.78–2.9 % pathological gambling