Table 1. . Examples of biomimicking composition of tissues at nanoscale.

Tissue	Nanotechnologies	Functionality	Tissue regeneration capacity	Ref.
Bone	Hydroxyapatite composite sponge with concentrated collagen nanofibers	Mimicking bone chemistry based on osteoconductive scaffolds composed of inorganic material and natural polymers	Induced continuous deposition of lamellar bone tissue while maintaining osteoblast activity	[17]
	Synthesis of the two major bone crystals: hydroxyapatite and whitlockite nanoparticles	Mimicking inorganic composition of bone, providing mechanical stability and stimulating osteogenic differentiation of stem cells	Enhanced proliferation and differentiation of bone cells and induced rapid regeneration of bone tissues	[19,20]
	Self-assembled peptide amphiphile nanofibrous matrices to induce biomimetic nucleation of hydroxyapatite crystals	Mimicking bone mineralization with collagen-like fibril structure and nucleation of hydroxyapatite crystals	Promoted new bone formation in a rat femoral defect model	[21]
Cartilage	Peptide amphiphilic nanofibers functionalized with chemical groups of GAG molecules	Mimicking composition, structure and function of the ECM	Enhanced aggregation of MSCs and deposition of cartilage-specific matrix elements	[22]
	Self-assembled supramolecular GAGs like glycopeptide nanofibers	Mimicking composition and functions of HA, the major component of cartilage	Induced chondrogenic differentiation of MSCs and enhanced formation of hyaline-like cartilage	[23]
Heart	Nanofibrous collagen scaffold made by electrospinning and crosslinking for cardiac tissue regeneration	Mimicking composition of myocardial connective stroma and delivery of cardiomyocytes	Improved vascularization of scaffold with upregulation of gene expression related to ECM remodeling, after implanted in vivo	[24]
	MSC seeded polycaprolactone nanofiber cardiac patch by fibronectin immobilization	Mimicking ECM of heart by using fibronectin, which is a major component of normal heart for cell adhesion and activity	Enhanced cellular adhesion increased angiogenesis, and improved cardiac function	[25]
Skin	Multilayer nanofilm composed of HA and poly-L-lysine on top of a HA scaffold by using layer-by-layer assembly for skin tissue engineering	Mimicking epidermal–dermal composition and structure of skin at nanometer scale	Promoted adhesion of keratinocytes, enhancing epidermal protective barrier function of skin	[26]
Muscle	Laminin mimetic peptide nanofibrous network	Mimicking composition and structure of skeletal muscle basal lamina	Enhanced cellular gene expression related to skeletal muscle specific marker	[27]

ECM: Extracellular matrix; GAG: Glycosaminoglycan; HA: Hyaluronic acid; MSC: Mesenchymal stem cell.