Table 1.

Different method to build matrix in cardiac tissue engineering.

Type	Matrix source	Cell source	Modification	Improvements after transplantation	Advantage	Shortage	Clinical trial
Decellularized	Cadaveric and animal source: Myocardial ECM, pericardium ECM, SIS, UBM, and so on	Alone, MSC, ATDSC, NRVCM, cardiomyocytes, and so on	FGF, HGF	LVEF ↑, LVFS ↑, infarct LV wall thickness ↑, infarct zone ↓, LV end diastolic and systolic pressure improvements	Purely extracellular matrix Exact multiscale structure Excellent biocompatibility Less rejection responses Preserved vascular network	Immature cells within a mature matrix Nonuniform decellularization protocols Lack of standards for successful decellularization Variable sample composition Limited by its own architecture	CorMatrix ECM trial [16]
Fibro matrix	Natural fibers: Collagen, fibrin, chitosan, alginate, hyaluronic acid, gelatin, albumin, and so on Artificial synthetic fibers: PGA, PLGA, PCU, PGS, PLA, PCL, PEG, and so on	Natural fibers always mixed with differentiated and proliferative potential cells: iPSC, MSC, ESC, BMMNC, and so on or simply alone. Artificial synthetic fibers usually are seeded with cardiac/smooth muscle cells: NRVCM, H9C2 cell line, C2C12 cell line, and so on	VEGF, FGF, HGF, IGF, TGFb, SDF-1a, physical stimulation, etc. “bio-hybrid”	Cell survival and retention ↑, LVEF ↑, LVFS ↑, contractile synchronicity ↑, LV end-diastolic pressure ↓, LV pressure change ↑, infarct size ↓, fibrosis ↓	Diversity of materials and solvents Control of fiber morphology (nano to macro) Nano-micro scale fiber fabrication Prefect force strength Well conduction velocity	Requires conductive polymers and solvents Low production rates Reproducible fiber production requires environmental control Less biocompatibility Lack of native stimulations for cell proliferation Considerate biodegradable behavior	MAGNUM [17] ESCORT [NCT02057900]
Hydrogel tissue model	Matrigel, Collagen, and so on	Alone, ESC, NRVCM, myoblasts, cardiomyocytes, and so on	VEGF, FGF	LVFS ↑, infarct size ↓, infarcted/noninfarcted wall thickness ratio ↑, LV wall thickness preservation Usually no LVEF improvements without components	Scaffold free Minimally invasive Catheter-based approach available	Limited to build macropieces Persist heart pressure but not improve contractile function among all researches	PRESERVATION [18] AUGMENT-HF [19]

ATDSC: adipose tissue derived stem cell; BMMNC: bone marrow mononuclear cell; ECM: extracellular matrix; ESC: embryonic stem cell; FGF: fibroblast growth factor; HGF: hepatocyte growth factor; IGF: insulin-like growth factor; iPSC: induced pluripotent stem cell; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LVFS: left ventricular fractional shortening; MSC: mesenchymal stem cell; NRVCM: neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocyte; PCL: poly(ε-caprolactone); PCU: polycarbonate-urethane; PEG: polyethylene glycol; PGA: poly(glycolic acid); PGS: poly(glycerol sebacate); PLA: polylactic acid; PLGA: poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid; SDF-1: stromal cell derived factor-1; SIS: small intestine submucosa; TGF: transforming growth factor; UBM: urinary bladder matrix; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor.