Figure 2.

AC ameliorated MMP loss, intracellular ROS and Ca²⁺ over-production, and the apoptotic alternations on the expression levels of proteins. (A) AC pretreatment restored the disruption of MMP caused by 12-h l-Glu exposure analyzing by 5,5′,6,6′-tetrachloro-1,1′,3,3′-tetraethyl-imidacarbocyanine iodide staining (JC-1) (n = 6) (20×; Scale bar: 25 μm); (B) AC pretreatment inhibited the over-accumulation of intracellular ROS caused by 12-h l-Glu exposure detecting by DCFH–DA staining (n = 6) (20×; Scale bar: 25 μm); (C) AC ameliorated the over-load of intracellular Ca²⁺ caused by 12-h l-Glu exposure analyzing by Fluo 4-AM staining (n = 6); (D) AC reduced the expression levels of cleaved caspase-3, Bax, calpain 1 and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) in l-Glu-exposed HT22 cells after 24-h co-incubation. Quantification data was normalized by GAPDH, expressed as percentage of CTRL and mean ± S.D. (n = 6). ^# p < 0.05 and ^## p < 0.01 vs. CTRL, * p < 0.05 and ** p < 0.01 vs. l-Glu-treated cells.