Table 4.

Long-Term Associations between ADHD Medication and Substance-Related Events

Cohort	Patients (n)	Substance-Related Events (n)	Population				Within-Individual
			Long-Term		Concurrent		Long-Term		Concurrent
			OR	(95% CI)	OR	(95% CI)	OR	(95% CI)	OR	(95% CI)
Male
All ADHD patients	581,941	17,637	1.02	(0.99–1.06)	0.78	(0.74–0.81)	0.81	(0.78–0.85)	0.68	(0.65–0.72)
With no other psychiatric medications	278,570	2,904	0.99	(0.91–1.07)	0.88	(0.80–0.97)	0.75	(0.67–0.83)	0.69	(0.60–0.78)
With no psychotherapy	357,085	4,996	1.03	(0.96–1.10)	0.83	(0.77–0.89)	0.72	(0.66–0.78)	0.67	(0.61–0.74)
Incident diagnosis cohort	129,403	3,629	0.93	(0.85–1.01)	0.88	(0.80–0.97)	0.82	(0.74–0.91)	0.76	(0.67–0.86)
Female
All ADHD patients	462,820	10,769	1.10	(1.05–1.15)	0.86	(0.82–0.90)	0.86	(0.82–0.91)	0.77	(0.72–0.82)
With no other psychiatric medications	128,472	897	0.98	(0.84–1.14)	1.12	(0.96–1.30)	0.93	(0.75–1.14)	0.84	(0.66–1.06)
With no psychotherapy	263,318	2,553	1.12	(1.02–1.24)	0.97	(0.88–1.07)	0.83	(0.74–0.94)	0.79	(0.68–0.91)
Incident diagnosis cohort	98,190	1,960	0.99	(0.88–1.11)	0.96	(0.86–1.09)	0.96	(0.83–1.11)	0.87	(0.74–1.03)

Note. ORs test long-term (two-year) and concurrent associations in simultaneous models. Models also control for age and calendar year (population models only) and time since last substance-related event (population and within-individual models). ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. OR = odds ratio.