Figure 1.

Schematic depicting on-demand fabrication of a pathogen-specific nanotoxoid and its vaccination benefits. A) Pathogens secrete virulence factors, which are capable of inserting into target cells and causing their destruction. B) Using nanosponges prepared with the membrane of target cells and incubating the particles with a bacterial supernatant-derived protein fraction, it is possible to generate a nanotoxoid carrying pathogen-specific virulence factors. C) After vaccination using the nanotoxoid, antibodies against the incorporated virulence factors are elicited and can prevent their toxic effects, leaving the intended targets unharmed.