Table 2.
Results of cognitive and behavioral tests (n = 66).
| Cognitive and behavioral tests | T value, unless indicated witha, mean ± SD (range) | Prevalence of pathological values, n (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Verbal memory | ||
| Verbal short-term memory | 54.37 ± 7.73 (39–72) | 0/66 (0%) |
| Auditory verbal learning and memory test (learning) | 45.92 ± 8.31 (25–65) | 6/66 (10%) |
| Auditory verbal learning and memory test (long-term recall) | 50.21 ± 10.8 (22–64) | 5/66 (7.58%) |
| Logical Memory of the Wechsler Memory test | 52.34 ± 7.53 (37–72) | 0/66 (0%) |
| Mean values of verbal memory tests | 50.59 ± 5.83 (30.75–62.75) | |
| Non-verbal memory | ||
| Visual short-term memory | 52.75 ± 9.24 (25–77) | 3/66 (4.55%) |
| Figural learning and memory test (learning) | 48.27 ± 9.07 (21–65) | 4/65 (6.15%) |
| Figural learning and memory test (long-term recall) | 48.68 ± 10.18 (20–64) | 5/64 (7.81%) |
| Recall of Rey-Taylor complex figure test | 53.83 ± 8.98 (20–79) | 1/66 (1.52%) |
| Mean values of non-verbal Memory tests | 50.89 ± 6.4 (34.25–66.25) | |
| Executive functions | ||
| Word fluency task | 47.40 ± 8.68 (31–72) | 5/66 (7.58%) |
| Design fluency task | 50.12 ± 7.82 (28–64) | 3/66 (4.55%) |
| Stroop’s color-word test III (mistakes) | 49.98 ± 8.51 (32–58) | 2/66 (3.03%) |
| Stroop’s color-word test III (time) | 52.66 ± 14.96 (28–79) | 7/66 (10.61%) |
| Planning test (number of moves) | 46.73 ± 10.73 (28–65) | 11/64 (17.19%) |
| Planning test (quality total) | 49.21 ± 10.91 (31–65) | 7/64 (10.94%) |
| Kramer’s card sorting test | 54.51 ± 7.38 (38–62) | 0/66 (0%) |
| Mean values of executive functions tests | 50.12 ± 5.42 (38–63.71) | |
| Attention | ||
| Alertness without warning signal | 43.6 ± 10.19 (27–84) | 11/65 (16.92%) |
| Alertness with warning signal | 41.55 ± 8.12 (24–63) | 15/65 (23.08%) |
| Divided attention | 45.07 ± 9.41 (27–62) | 12/65 (18.46%) |
| Test des deux barrages (total per minute) | 42.04 ± 7.50 (20–55) | 9/63 (14.29%) |
| Test des deux barrages (omission) | 49.30 ± 8.39 (32–67) | 2/63 (3.17%) |
| Test des deux barrages (constancy) | 47.15 ± 11.0 (28–76) | 8/63 (12.7%) |
| Modified Trail Making Test Form A | 47.66 ± 8.6 (20–60) | 4/57 (7.02%) |
| Mean values of attention tests | 44.98 ± 4.96 (31.67–54.57) | |
| Visuospatial abilities/visual perception | ||
| Rey-Taylor complex figure test (copy) | 51.84 ± 4.34 (35–53) | 4/66 (6.06%) |
| Spatial test | 52.74 ± 7.7 (30–60) | 1/66 (1.52%) |
| Cortical Vision Screening test (maximum 38) | 37.81a ± 0.81 (32–38) | 0/66 (0%) |
| Mean values of visuospatial abilities/visual perception tests | 47.6 ± 3.41 (32.33–52) | |
| Neglect | ||
| Bells test (omissions; cut-off 6) | 0.96a ± 1.24 (0–5) | 0/63 (0%) |
| Apraxia | ||
| Apraxia total (TULIA) | 216.93a ± 10.87 (193–237) | 3/59 (5.08%) |
| Language | ||
| Token test (maximum 10) | 10a ± 0 (10) | 0/66 (0%) |
| Naming (maximum 10) | 9.96a ± 0.25 (8–10) | 0/66 (0%) |
| Reading (maximum 10) | 10a ± 0 (10) | 0/64 (0%) |
| Writing (maximum 10) | 9.91a ± 0.52 (6–10) | 0/66 (0%) |
| Mean values of language tests | 9.97 ± 0.14 (9–10) | |
| Frontal System Behavior Scale | ||
| Before | ||
| Self-rating | ||
| Apathy | 48.09 ± 10.26 (30–85) | 3/61 (4.91%) |
| Disinhibition | 53.04 ± 10.23 (35–79) | 7/61 (11.47%) |
| Executive dysfunction | 50.86 ± 10.61 (33–88) | 5/61 (8.47%) |
| Total | 51.24 ± 10.43 (37–95) | 7/61 (11.47%) |
| Family rating | ||
| Apathy | 46.55 ± 10.52 (28–72) | 4/59 (6.77%) |
| Disinhibition | 48.45 ± 10.66 (28–71) | 5/59 (8.19%) |
| Executive dysfunction | 51.84 ± 13.28 (28–97) | 8/59 (12.12%) |
| Total | 49.27 ± 11.45 (25–77) | 8/59 (12.12%) |
| After | ||
| Self-rating | ||
| Apathy | 59.78 ± 15.64 (32–111) | 17/61 (27.86%) |
| Disinhibition | 54.42 ± 9.92 (40–79) | 14/61 (22.95%) |
| Executive dysfunction | 55.91 ± 12.48 (33–91) | 14/61 (22.95%) |
| Total | 58 ± 12.0 (36–90) | 15/61 (24.59%) |
| Family rating | ||
| Apathy | 55.08 ± 15.09 (28–93) | 11/60 (10.00%) |
| Disinhibition | 54.46 ± 13.76 (28–91) | 17/60 (27.86%) |
| Executive dysfunction | 55.95 ± 15.18 (28–93) | 20/60 (33.33%) |
| Total | 56.85 ± 15.11 (25–100) | 18/60 (30%) |
| BDI | 12.34a ± 7.95 (0–36) | |
| 0–8 (none depressive symptoms) | 22/61 (36.06%) | |
| 9–13 (minimal depressive symptoms) | 16/61 (26.22%) | |
| 14–19 (mild depressive symptoms) | 13/61 (21.31%) | |
| 20–28 (medium depressive symptoms) | 7/61 (11.47%) | |
| >29 (heavily depressive symptoms) | 3/61 (4.91%) | |
| WEIMuS | ||
| Physically, comparison with HC | 61.54 ± 14.81 (39–89) | 8/62 (12.90%) |
| Cognitive, comparison with HC | 60.41 ± 13.87 (40–88) | 14/62 (22.58%) |
| Total, comparison with HC | 61.11 ± 14.53 (39–91) | 10/62 (16.12%) |
| Physically, comparison to PwMS | 43.83 ± 11.43 (26–65) | 8/62 (12.90%) |
| Cognitive, comparison to PwMS | 47.62 ± 9.76 (33–68) | 11/62 (17.74%) |
| Total, comparison to PwMS | 45.51 ± 11.38 (28–68) | 11/62 (17.74%) |
The results of each cognitive or behavioral test are shown and mean values of tests contributing to the cognitive domains “Verbal memory,” “Non-verbal memory,” “Executive function,” “Attention,” “Visuospatial Abilities/Visual perception,” and “Language” were calculated; T scores ≤35 are pathological except for the FrSBe in which T value >65 are pathological.
aRaw value of scale.
n, number, HC, healthy controls; PwMS, patients with multiple sclerosis; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; WEIMuS, Wuerzburg Fatigue Inventory for Multiple Sclerosis test; FrSBe, Frontal Systems Behavior Scale.