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. 2017 Jun 14;2(2):e000221. doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2016-000221

Table 4.

Overall distribution of prevalence of major non-communicable disease risk factors by iHDSS. The values are numbers and percentages (95% CI) and means (SD)

NCD risk factors Overall West Hiri Asaro Karkar Island p Value*
N n % (95% CI) N n % (95% CI) N n % (95% CI) N n % (95% CI)
Daily tobacco smokers† 526 253 48 (44 to 53) 155 64 41 (34 to 50) 171 85 50 (42 to 57) 200 104 52 (45 to 59) 0.170
 Male 248 171 69 (63 to 75) 71 47 66 (54 to 77) 90 62 69 (58 to 78) 87 62 71 (61 to 80) 0.588
 Female 278 82 29 (24 to 35) 84 17 20 (12 to 30) 81 23 28 (19 to 40) 113 42 37 (28 to 47) 0.035
Types of tobacco smoked 224 60 76 88
 Manufactured filtered cigarette 27 12 (8 to 17) 21 35 (23 to 48) 6 8 (3 to 17) 0 0 (0 to 4) <0.001
 Unfiltered dark tobacco (spear/mutrus) 42 19 (14 to 25) 39 65 (52 to 77) 2 3 (0 to 9) 1 1 (0 to 6) <0.001
 Home-grown tobacco (brus) 155 69 (58 to 70) 0 0 (0 to 6) 68 89 (80 to 95) 87 99 (94 to 100) <0.001
Current alcohol consumption‡ 523 118 23 (19 to 26) 152 66 43 (35 to 52) 171 38 22 (16 to 29) 200 14 7 (4 to 12) 0.001
 Male 248 96 39 (33 to 45) 71 49 69 (57 to 79) 90 33 37 (27 to 47) 87 14 16 (9 to 26) 0.002
 Female 275 22 8 (5 to 12) 81 17 21 (13 to 31) 81 5 6 (2 to 14) 113 0 0 (0 to 3) 0.004
Alcohol frequency past 12 months 185 89 60 36
 Daily 5 3 (1 to 6) 0 0 (0 to 4) 5 8 (3 to 18) 0 0 (0 to 10) 0.023
  5–6 days/week 7 4 (2 to 8) 0 0 (0 to 4) 7 12 (5 to 23) 0 0 (0 to 10) 0.004
 1–4 days/week 12 6 (3 to 11) 6 7 (3 to 14) 5 8 (3 to 18) 1 3 (0 to 15) 0.513
 1–3 days/month 58 31 (25 to 39) 40 45 (34 to 56) 12 20 (11 to 32) 6 17 (6 to 33) 0.004
 Less than once a month 103 55 (48 to 63) 43 48 (38 to 59) 31 52 (38 to 65) 29 81 (64 to 92) 0.016
Chewing betel nut§ 520 386 74 (70 to 78) 155 145 94 (89 to 97) 168 93 55 (47 to 63) 197 148 75 (68 to 81) <0.001
 Male 245 179 73 (67 to 79) 71 64 90 (81 to 96) 89 52 58 (47 to 69) 85 63 74 (63 to 83) <0.001
 Female 275 207 75 (70 to 80) 84 81 96 (90 to 99) 79 41 52 (40 to 63) 112 85 76 (67 to 83) <0.001
Betel nut with betel bean and slaked lime 386 357 92 (89 to 95) 145 128 88 (82 to 93) 93 84 90 (83 to 96) 148 145 98 (94 to 100) 0.012
Stress 771 246 32 (29 to 35) 266 122 46 (40 to 52) 254 112 44 (38 to 50) 252 12 5 (2 to 8) <0.001
 Male 360 115 33 (28 to 38) 114 49 43 (34 to 53) 130 61 47 (38 to 56) 117 5 4 (1 to 10) <0.001
 Female 411 131 31 (26 to 35) 152 73 48 (40 to 56) 124 51 41 (32 to 50) 135 7 5 (2 to 10) <0.001
Insufficient physical activity¶ 504 101 20 (17 to 24) 169 39 23 (17 to 30) 186 12 6 (4 to 11) 149 50 34 (26 to 42) <0.001
 Male 233 37 16 (11 to 21) 76 14 18 (10 to 29) 94 5 5 (2 to 12) 63 18 29 (18 to 41) <0.001
 Female 271 64 24 (19 to 29) 93 25 27 (18 to 37) 92 7 8 (3 to 15) 86 32 37 (27 to 48) <0.001
Mean (SD) BMI (kg/m2) 767 23.9±5.7 264 26±7.1 252 24.0±4.4 251 21.5±4.0 <0.001
Overweight (BMI ≥25–29.9 kg/m2) 767 144 19 (16 to 22) 264 65 25 (20 to 30) 252 59 23 (18 to 29) 251 20 8 (5 to 12) <0.001
 Male 356 67 19 (15 to 23) 112 32 29 (20 to 38) 128 29 23 (16 to 31) 116 6 5 (2 to 11) <0.001
 Female 411 77 19 (15 to 23) 152 33 22 (15 to 29) 124 30 24 (17 to 33) 135 14 10 (6 to 17) 0.009
Obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m2) 767 82 11 (9 to 13) 264 59 22 (18 to 28) 252 16 6 (4 to 10) 251 7 3 (1 to 6) <0.001
 Male 356 20 6 (3 to 9) 112 15 13 (8 to 21) 128 3 2 (0.5 to 7) 116 2 2 (0.2 to 6) <0.001
 Female 411 62 15 (12 to 19) 152 44 29 (22 to 37) 124 13 10 (6 to 17) 135 5 4 (1 to 8) <0.001
Mean (SD) WHR 758 0.91±0.09 264 0.88±0.12 250 0.94±0.08 244 0.90±0.06 <0.001
Central obesity (WHR, M≥0.9/F≥0.85) 758 514 68 (64 to 71) 264 138 52 (46 to 58) 250 225 90 (86 to 93) 244 151 62 (56 to 68) <0.001
 Male 351 218 62 (57 to 67) 112 50 45 (35 to 54) 128 125 98 (93 to 100) 111 43 39 (30 to 48) <0.001
 Female 407 296 73 (68 to 77) 152 88 58 (50 to 66) 122 100 82 (74 to 88) 133 108 81 (74 to 87) <0.001
Mean (SD) SBP (mm Hg) 738 123±17.5 264 125.7±19.8 222 126.7±16.8 252 116.8±13.3 <0.001
Mean (SD) DBP (mm Hg) 738 75.3±10.9 264 77±12.4 222 78.4±9.7 252 70.7±8.5 <0.001
Prehypertension** 738 339 46 (42 to 50) 264 120 46 (39 to 52) 222 123 55 (42 to 62) 252 96 38 (32 to 44) 0.001
 Male 344 189 55 (50 to 60) 112 65 58 (48 to 67) 115 67 58 (49 to 67) 117 57 49 (39 to 58) 0.25
 Female 394 150 38 (33 to 43) 152 55 36 (29 to 44) 107 56 52 (42 to 62) 135 39 29 (21 to 37) 0.001
Hypertension (≥140/90 mm Hg) 738 118 16 (13 to 19) 264 58 22 (17 to 28) 222 48 22 (16 to 28) 252 12 5 (3 to 8) <0.001
 Male 344 65 19 (15 to 23) 112 32 29 (20 to 38) 115 28 24 (17 to 33) 117 5 4 (1 to 10) <0.001
 Female 394 53 13 (10 to 17) 152 26 17 (14 to 24) 107 20 19 (12 to 27) 135 7 5 (2 to 10) <0.001
Mean (SD) cholesterol (mmol/L) 708 4.6±1.8 258 5.0±1.8 218 4.7±1.7 232 4.2±1.7 <0.001
Elevated cholesterol (>6.2 mmol/L) 708 123 17 (15 to 20) 258 61 24 (19 to 29) 218 35 16 (11 to 22) 232 27 12 (8 to 17) 0.002
 Male 321 50 16 (12 to 20) 108 22 20 (13 to 29) 108 18 17 (10 to 25) 105 10 10 (5 to 17) 0.086
 Female 387 73 19 (15 to 23) 150 39 26 (19 to 34) 110 17 15 (9 to 24) 127 17 13 (8 to 21) 0.016
Mean (SD) HDL-C (mmol/L) 709 1.2±0.6 258 1.3±0.5 218 1.1±0.5 233 1.0±0.6 <0.001
Low HDL-C†† 709 388 55 (51 to 58) 258 116 45 (39 to 51) 218 127 58 (51 to 65) 233 145 62 (56 to 68) <0.001
 Male 322 142 44 (39 to 50) 108 33 31 (22 to 40) 108 49 45 (36 to 55) 106 60 57 (47 to 66) 0.001
 Female 387 246 64 (59 to 68) 150 83 55 (47 to 63) 110 78 71 (61 to 79) 127 85 67 (58 to 75) 0.023
Mean (SD) HbA1c 712 5.4±0.8 253 5.7±1.2 220 5.3±0.3 239 5.2±0.4 <0.001
Prediabetes HbA1c (≥5.7%–6.4%) 712 107 15 (13 to 18) 253 65 26 (20 to 32) 220 25 11 (8 to 16) 239 17 7 (4 to 11) <0.001
 Male 323 41 13 (9 to 17) 107 20 19 (12 to 27) 109 13 12 (7 to 20) 107 8 7 (3 to 14) 0.052
 Female 386 66 17 (13 to 21) 146 45 31 (23 to 39) 111 12 11 (6 to 18) 132 9 7 (3 to 13) <0.001
DMT2 HbA1c (≥6.5%) 712 24 3 (2 to 5) 253 22 9 (6 to 13) 220 0 0 (0 to 2) 239 2 1 (0 to 3) <0.001
 Male 323 8 2 (1 to 5) 107 8 7 (3 to 14) 109 0 0 (0 to 3) 107 0 0 (0 to 3) <0.001
 Female 386 16 4 (2 to 7) 146 14 10 (5 to 16) 111 0 0 (0 to 3) 132 2 2 (0.2 to 5) <0.001

*p Values were obtained by Pearson’s χ2 test and Fisher’s exact test where appropriate for categorical variables and one-way ANOVA for continuous variables, †Current tobacco smoking on a daily basis, ‡Consumption of alcohol within last 30 days.

§Chewed betel nut within last 30 days, ¶Vigorous physical activity <75 min and moderate physical activity <150 min/week, **Prehypertension=SBP>120–139.9 mm Hg and/or DBP 80–89 mm Hg, ††Low HDL-C=<1 mmol/L men and ≤1.3 mmol/L women.

ANOVA, analysis of variance; BMI, body mass index; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; DMT2, diabetes mellitus type 2; HbA1c, haemoglobin A1c; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; iHDSS, integrated Health and Demographic Surveillance Sites; NCD, non-communicable disease; SBP, systolic blood pressure; WHR, waist-to-hip ratio.