Table 4.
NCD risk factors | Overall | West Hiri | Asaro | Karkar Island | p Value* | ||||||||
N | n | % (95% CI) | N | n | % (95% CI) | N | n | % (95% CI) | N | n | % (95% CI) | ||
Daily tobacco smokers† | 526 | 253 | 48 (44 to 53) | 155 | 64 | 41 (34 to 50) | 171 | 85 | 50 (42 to 57) | 200 | 104 | 52 (45 to 59) | 0.170 |
Male | 248 | 171 | 69 (63 to 75) | 71 | 47 | 66 (54 to 77) | 90 | 62 | 69 (58 to 78) | 87 | 62 | 71 (61 to 80) | 0.588 |
Female | 278 | 82 | 29 (24 to 35) | 84 | 17 | 20 (12 to 30) | 81 | 23 | 28 (19 to 40) | 113 | 42 | 37 (28 to 47) | 0.035 |
Types of tobacco smoked | 224 | 60 | 76 | 88 | |||||||||
Manufactured filtered cigarette | 27 | 12 (8 to 17) | 21 | 35 (23 to 48) | 6 | 8 (3 to 17) | 0 | 0 (0 to 4) | <0.001 | ||||
Unfiltered dark tobacco (spear/mutrus) | 42 | 19 (14 to 25) | 39 | 65 (52 to 77) | 2 | 3 (0 to 9) | 1 | 1 (0 to 6) | <0.001 | ||||
Home-grown tobacco (brus) | 155 | 69 (58 to 70) | 0 | 0 (0 to 6) | 68 | 89 (80 to 95) | 87 | 99 (94 to 100) | <0.001 | ||||
Current alcohol consumption‡ | 523 | 118 | 23 (19 to 26) | 152 | 66 | 43 (35 to 52) | 171 | 38 | 22 (16 to 29) | 200 | 14 | 7 (4 to 12) | 0.001 |
Male | 248 | 96 | 39 (33 to 45) | 71 | 49 | 69 (57 to 79) | 90 | 33 | 37 (27 to 47) | 87 | 14 | 16 (9 to 26) | 0.002 |
Female | 275 | 22 | 8 (5 to 12) | 81 | 17 | 21 (13 to 31) | 81 | 5 | 6 (2 to 14) | 113 | 0 | 0 (0 to 3) | 0.004 |
Alcohol frequency past 12 months | 185 | 89 | 60 | 36 | |||||||||
Daily | 5 | 3 (1 to 6) | 0 | 0 (0 to 4) | 5 | 8 (3 to 18) | 0 | 0 (0 to 10) | 0.023 | ||||
5–6 days/week | 7 | 4 (2 to 8) | 0 | 0 (0 to 4) | 7 | 12 (5 to 23) | 0 | 0 (0 to 10) | 0.004 | ||||
1–4 days/week | 12 | 6 (3 to 11) | 6 | 7 (3 to 14) | 5 | 8 (3 to 18) | 1 | 3 (0 to 15) | 0.513 | ||||
1–3 days/month | 58 | 31 (25 to 39) | 40 | 45 (34 to 56) | 12 | 20 (11 to 32) | 6 | 17 (6 to 33) | 0.004 | ||||
Less than once a month | 103 | 55 (48 to 63) | 43 | 48 (38 to 59) | 31 | 52 (38 to 65) | 29 | 81 (64 to 92) | 0.016 | ||||
Chewing betel nut§ | 520 | 386 | 74 (70 to 78) | 155 | 145 | 94 (89 to 97) | 168 | 93 | 55 (47 to 63) | 197 | 148 | 75 (68 to 81) | <0.001 |
Male | 245 | 179 | 73 (67 to 79) | 71 | 64 | 90 (81 to 96) | 89 | 52 | 58 (47 to 69) | 85 | 63 | 74 (63 to 83) | <0.001 |
Female | 275 | 207 | 75 (70 to 80) | 84 | 81 | 96 (90 to 99) | 79 | 41 | 52 (40 to 63) | 112 | 85 | 76 (67 to 83) | <0.001 |
Betel nut with betel bean and slaked lime | 386 | 357 | 92 (89 to 95) | 145 | 128 | 88 (82 to 93) | 93 | 84 | 90 (83 to 96) | 148 | 145 | 98 (94 to 100) | 0.012 |
Stress | 771 | 246 | 32 (29 to 35) | 266 | 122 | 46 (40 to 52) | 254 | 112 | 44 (38 to 50) | 252 | 12 | 5 (2 to 8) | <0.001 |
Male | 360 | 115 | 33 (28 to 38) | 114 | 49 | 43 (34 to 53) | 130 | 61 | 47 (38 to 56) | 117 | 5 | 4 (1 to 10) | <0.001 |
Female | 411 | 131 | 31 (26 to 35) | 152 | 73 | 48 (40 to 56) | 124 | 51 | 41 (32 to 50) | 135 | 7 | 5 (2 to 10) | <0.001 |
Insufficient physical activity¶ | 504 | 101 | 20 (17 to 24) | 169 | 39 | 23 (17 to 30) | 186 | 12 | 6 (4 to 11) | 149 | 50 | 34 (26 to 42) | <0.001 |
Male | 233 | 37 | 16 (11 to 21) | 76 | 14 | 18 (10 to 29) | 94 | 5 | 5 (2 to 12) | 63 | 18 | 29 (18 to 41) | <0.001 |
Female | 271 | 64 | 24 (19 to 29) | 93 | 25 | 27 (18 to 37) | 92 | 7 | 8 (3 to 15) | 86 | 32 | 37 (27 to 48) | <0.001 |
Mean (SD) BMI (kg/m2) | 767 | 23.9±5.7 | 264 | 26±7.1 | 252 | 24.0±4.4 | 251 | 21.5±4.0 | <0.001 | ||||
Overweight (BMI ≥25–29.9 kg/m2) | 767 | 144 | 19 (16 to 22) | 264 | 65 | 25 (20 to 30) | 252 | 59 | 23 (18 to 29) | 251 | 20 | 8 (5 to 12) | <0.001 |
Male | 356 | 67 | 19 (15 to 23) | 112 | 32 | 29 (20 to 38) | 128 | 29 | 23 (16 to 31) | 116 | 6 | 5 (2 to 11) | <0.001 |
Female | 411 | 77 | 19 (15 to 23) | 152 | 33 | 22 (15 to 29) | 124 | 30 | 24 (17 to 33) | 135 | 14 | 10 (6 to 17) | 0.009 |
Obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m2) | 767 | 82 | 11 (9 to 13) | 264 | 59 | 22 (18 to 28) | 252 | 16 | 6 (4 to 10) | 251 | 7 | 3 (1 to 6) | <0.001 |
Male | 356 | 20 | 6 (3 to 9) | 112 | 15 | 13 (8 to 21) | 128 | 3 | 2 (0.5 to 7) | 116 | 2 | 2 (0.2 to 6) | <0.001 |
Female | 411 | 62 | 15 (12 to 19) | 152 | 44 | 29 (22 to 37) | 124 | 13 | 10 (6 to 17) | 135 | 5 | 4 (1 to 8) | <0.001 |
Mean (SD) WHR | 758 | 0.91±0.09 | 264 | 0.88±0.12 | 250 | 0.94±0.08 | 244 | 0.90±0.06 | <0.001 | ||||
Central obesity (WHR, M≥0.9/F≥0.85) | 758 | 514 | 68 (64 to 71) | 264 | 138 | 52 (46 to 58) | 250 | 225 | 90 (86 to 93) | 244 | 151 | 62 (56 to 68) | <0.001 |
Male | 351 | 218 | 62 (57 to 67) | 112 | 50 | 45 (35 to 54) | 128 | 125 | 98 (93 to 100) | 111 | 43 | 39 (30 to 48) | <0.001 |
Female | 407 | 296 | 73 (68 to 77) | 152 | 88 | 58 (50 to 66) | 122 | 100 | 82 (74 to 88) | 133 | 108 | 81 (74 to 87) | <0.001 |
Mean (SD) SBP (mm Hg) | 738 | 123±17.5 | 264 | 125.7±19.8 | 222 | 126.7±16.8 | 252 | 116.8±13.3 | <0.001 | ||||
Mean (SD) DBP (mm Hg) | 738 | 75.3±10.9 | 264 | 77±12.4 | 222 | 78.4±9.7 | 252 | 70.7±8.5 | <0.001 | ||||
Prehypertension** | 738 | 339 | 46 (42 to 50) | 264 | 120 | 46 (39 to 52) | 222 | 123 | 55 (42 to 62) | 252 | 96 | 38 (32 to 44) | 0.001 |
Male | 344 | 189 | 55 (50 to 60) | 112 | 65 | 58 (48 to 67) | 115 | 67 | 58 (49 to 67) | 117 | 57 | 49 (39 to 58) | 0.25 |
Female | 394 | 150 | 38 (33 to 43) | 152 | 55 | 36 (29 to 44) | 107 | 56 | 52 (42 to 62) | 135 | 39 | 29 (21 to 37) | 0.001 |
Hypertension (≥140/90 mm Hg) | 738 | 118 | 16 (13 to 19) | 264 | 58 | 22 (17 to 28) | 222 | 48 | 22 (16 to 28) | 252 | 12 | 5 (3 to 8) | <0.001 |
Male | 344 | 65 | 19 (15 to 23) | 112 | 32 | 29 (20 to 38) | 115 | 28 | 24 (17 to 33) | 117 | 5 | 4 (1 to 10) | <0.001 |
Female | 394 | 53 | 13 (10 to 17) | 152 | 26 | 17 (14 to 24) | 107 | 20 | 19 (12 to 27) | 135 | 7 | 5 (2 to 10) | <0.001 |
Mean (SD) cholesterol (mmol/L) | 708 | 4.6±1.8 | 258 | 5.0±1.8 | 218 | 4.7±1.7 | 232 | 4.2±1.7 | <0.001 | ||||
Elevated cholesterol (>6.2 mmol/L) | 708 | 123 | 17 (15 to 20) | 258 | 61 | 24 (19 to 29) | 218 | 35 | 16 (11 to 22) | 232 | 27 | 12 (8 to 17) | 0.002 |
Male | 321 | 50 | 16 (12 to 20) | 108 | 22 | 20 (13 to 29) | 108 | 18 | 17 (10 to 25) | 105 | 10 | 10 (5 to 17) | 0.086 |
Female | 387 | 73 | 19 (15 to 23) | 150 | 39 | 26 (19 to 34) | 110 | 17 | 15 (9 to 24) | 127 | 17 | 13 (8 to 21) | 0.016 |
Mean (SD) HDL-C (mmol/L) | 709 | 1.2±0.6 | 258 | 1.3±0.5 | 218 | 1.1±0.5 | 233 | 1.0±0.6 | <0.001 | ||||
Low HDL-C†† | 709 | 388 | 55 (51 to 58) | 258 | 116 | 45 (39 to 51) | 218 | 127 | 58 (51 to 65) | 233 | 145 | 62 (56 to 68) | <0.001 |
Male | 322 | 142 | 44 (39 to 50) | 108 | 33 | 31 (22 to 40) | 108 | 49 | 45 (36 to 55) | 106 | 60 | 57 (47 to 66) | 0.001 |
Female | 387 | 246 | 64 (59 to 68) | 150 | 83 | 55 (47 to 63) | 110 | 78 | 71 (61 to 79) | 127 | 85 | 67 (58 to 75) | 0.023 |
Mean (SD) HbA1c | 712 | 5.4±0.8 | 253 | 5.7±1.2 | 220 | 5.3±0.3 | 239 | 5.2±0.4 | <0.001 | ||||
Prediabetes HbA1c (≥5.7%–6.4%) | 712 | 107 | 15 (13 to 18) | 253 | 65 | 26 (20 to 32) | 220 | 25 | 11 (8 to 16) | 239 | 17 | 7 (4 to 11) | <0.001 |
Male | 323 | 41 | 13 (9 to 17) | 107 | 20 | 19 (12 to 27) | 109 | 13 | 12 (7 to 20) | 107 | 8 | 7 (3 to 14) | 0.052 |
Female | 386 | 66 | 17 (13 to 21) | 146 | 45 | 31 (23 to 39) | 111 | 12 | 11 (6 to 18) | 132 | 9 | 7 (3 to 13) | <0.001 |
DMT2 HbA1c (≥6.5%) | 712 | 24 | 3 (2 to 5) | 253 | 22 | 9 (6 to 13) | 220 | 0 | 0 (0 to 2) | 239 | 2 | 1 (0 to 3) | <0.001 |
Male | 323 | 8 | 2 (1 to 5) | 107 | 8 | 7 (3 to 14) | 109 | 0 | 0 (0 to 3) | 107 | 0 | 0 (0 to 3) | <0.001 |
Female | 386 | 16 | 4 (2 to 7) | 146 | 14 | 10 (5 to 16) | 111 | 0 | 0 (0 to 3) | 132 | 2 | 2 (0.2 to 5) | <0.001 |
*p Values were obtained by Pearson’s χ2 test and Fisher’s exact test where appropriate for categorical variables and one-way ANOVA for continuous variables, †Current tobacco smoking on a daily basis, ‡Consumption of alcohol within last 30 days.
§Chewed betel nut within last 30 days, ¶Vigorous physical activity <75 min and moderate physical activity <150 min/week, **Prehypertension=SBP>120–139.9 mm Hg and/or DBP 80–89 mm Hg, ††Low HDL-C=<1 mmol/L men and ≤1.3 mmol/L women.
ANOVA, analysis of variance; BMI, body mass index; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; DMT2, diabetes mellitus type 2; HbA1c, haemoglobin A1c; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; iHDSS, integrated Health and Demographic Surveillance Sites; NCD, non-communicable disease; SBP, systolic blood pressure; WHR, waist-to-hip ratio.