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. 2017 Sep 7;7:10891. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-06985-4

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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(a) Temporal evolution of target potential (red) and charge escape (blue) for 3 J, 600 fs (representative of the TARANIS system) - solid line, and 3 J, 30 fs (ARCTURUS system) - dashed line, obtained from the simple phenomenological model described in the text. A laser-to-electron conversion efficiency of 30% was assumed in both cases. The dashed black line indicates the time needed to spread the charge over a 2 mm diameter target disc After this time, target potential and escaped charge for 2mm-sized targets are assumed constant in the model, as indicated by the respective dotted lines. (b) shows the net charge escape from a 2 mm diameter target while varying the laser pulse duration, obtained from modelling of the target charging using the ChoCoLaT code¹⁷. The red data points show the total charge contained within the EM pulse measured at the ARCTURUS and TARANIS lasers with (E _L, τ, I _o) equal to (~1 J, ~30 fs, ~2 × 10²⁰ W cm⁻²) and (~3 J, ~600 fs, ~2 × 10¹⁹ W cm⁻²) respectively.