Table 3.

Associations between modifiable lifestyle factors and substantial pain, obtained using multivariable regression modeling.^a

		Odds ratio	95% confidence interval		p-Value
Smoking status	Never	Reference
	Previous	1.00	0.77	1.30	0.984
	Current	1.97	1.35	2.87	<0.001
Alcohol use	Low	Reference
	Moderate/high	0.67	0.52	0.87	0.002
Physical activity	Low active	Reference
	Moderate active	0.73	0.55	0.98	0.037
	High active	0.58	0.42	0.80	0.001
Daily vitamin D supplementation	None	Reference
	1–5,000 IU	0.90	0.65	1.25	0.538
	>5,000 IU	0.77	0.51	1.16	0.208
Omega-3 supplementation	None	Reference
	Flaxseed	0.87	0.53	1.42	0.577
	Fish oil	0.89	0.67	1.20	0.451
	Both fish and flaxseed oil	0.79	0.53	1.19	0.263
Meditation frequency	Never	Reference
	Yes	1.27	0.98	1.64	0.065
Body mass index	Normal weight	Reference
	Underweight	1.07	0.57	1.98	0.842
	Overweight	1.33	0.99	1.81	0.062
	Obese	2.06	1.51	2.81	<0.001
Dietary score (per 10 points)		0.84	0.75	0.95	0.004
DMD use	No	Reference
	Yes	1.07	0.83	1.37	0.589
Pain medication use	No	Reference
	Prescription*	8.34	6.13	11.34	<0.001
	Over the counter or herbal only	2.67	2.00	3.57	<0.001

Complete case analysis consisted of 80% of the data, N = 1,955. DMD, disease-modifying drug. LR χ²(23) = 630.4, p < 0.001, Log likelihood = −855.7, Pseudo R² = 0.27.

^aModel adjusted for age, gender, years since diagnosis and disability level.

*Some people taking prescription medication were also taking over the counter or herbal pain medication.