Table 1.
Summary of the effects of oestrogen and testosterone on various organs
| Organ | Oestrogen | Testosterone | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Effect | References | Effect | References | |
| Heart | • Improved left ventricular function • Improved cardiac output • Enhanced p38MAPK, Akt, eNOS and HSP expression • Reduction in IL-6, NFκB and TNF-α |
[70–79] | • Depressed myocardial function • Suppression of Akt anti-apoptotic pathways • Reduced expression of Bcl-2 • Chronic administration improves function and reduces tissue damage |
[80–82] |
| Lungs | • Decreased lung congestion, oedema and inflammation • Decreased emphysematous changes • Enhanced eNOS/PKG expression • Decreased KDC, MIF, TLR-4 and ERK expression • Reduction in IL-6, TNF-α, ICAM-1, CINC-1 and MIP-2 |
[87, 105–110, 159] | • Increased lung permeability and inflammation • Increased nitric oxide levels |
[45] |
| Liver | • Reduction in liver congestion, portal inflammation and focal necrosis • Enhanced Kupffer cell function • Reduction in IL-6, TNF-α, MIP-1α and MIP-2 • Increased expression of Bcl-2 • Reduced ET-1 response |
[68, 71, 87–96] | • Reduced hepatic microvascular blood flow • Diminished hepatocellular function |
[97] |
| Spleen | • Stimulation of splenocyte proliferation • Increased IL-2 and IL-3 • Improved splenic macrophage and T lymphocyte function • Prevented apoptosis of splenic dendritic cells • Improved splenic dendritic cell function • Enhanced MHC II expression |
[52, 55–60] | • Reduces MHC II expression • Depressed cell-mediated immune response |
[56] |
| Intestines | • Reduced ET-1 response • Enhanced p38MAPK and Akt expression • Reduction in MPO, ICAM-1, CINC-1, CINC-3, MIP-2 and IL-6 |
[101–104] | • Enhances local pro-inflammatory response | [45, 97, 98] |
| Brain/Nerves | • Reduced iNOS expression • Reduction in hypothalamic TNF-α • Preservation of blood brain barrier integrity • Inhibition of MMP-2 and MMP-9 |
[113–117] | • Inhibition of caspase-3, MPO and XO activity • Reduction in malondialdehyde • Increased catalase levels • Maintains cellular and structural integrity • Preserves neural function |
[118–120] |
| Kidneys | • Enhanced Akt and eNOS expression • Reduction in neutrophil infiltration |
[127, 128] | • Reduced NOS, Akt and ERK expression • Low doses: increased IL-10 and reduction in T cell infiltration |
[125, 126] |
MAPK Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase; eNOS endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase; HSP Heat Shock Protein; IL Interleukin; NFκB Nuclear Factor Kappa B; TNF-α Tumour Necrosis Factor-alpha; PKG Protein Kinase G; KDC Keratinocyte-derived Chemokines; MIF Migration Inhibitory Factor; TLR Toll-like Receptor; ICAM Intracellular Adhesion Molecule; CINC Cytokine-induced Neutrophil Chemoattractant; MIP; Macrophage Inflammatory Protein; Bcl-2 B-cell lymphoma-2; ET Endothelin; MHC Major Histocompatibility Complex; MPO Myeloperoxidase; iNOS inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase; MMP Matrix Metalloproteinase